ABYDOS WARE AND THE LOCATION OF THE EGYPTIAN FIRST DYNASTY ROYAL TOMBS

Transcription

1 ABYDOS WARE AND THE LOCATION OF THE EGYPTIAN FIRST DYNASTY ROYAL TOMBS Tomoaki NAKANO* Introduction Until quite recently, the location of the Egyptian First Dynasty royal tombs was a central issue in studies of the formative period of ancient Egypt. In the early 1900s, Petrie confirmed eight possible royal tombs of the First Dynasty, mainly on the basis of the discovery of royal stelae, which were supposed to have stood in pairs in front of each tomb (Fig. 1-A).(1) But, about four decades after Petrie's investigations, Emery found a series of more elaborate and larger tombs at Saqqara, the necropolis of the ancient capital of Memphis (Fig. 1-B).(2) After that, a long period of controversy began over the location of the true royal tombs. The discussion has mainly concentrated on comparing the sizes of the tombs at both sites in the wake of Emery's argument that the large Saqqara tombs were true tombs for actual royal burials, whereas the Abydos tombs were used as cenotaphs to commemorate the original homeland of the king of Upper Egypt.(3) Owing to a series of successful archaeological investigations of funerary enclosures(4) and late Predynastic chiefs' tombs in Abydos(5) recently, however, most Egyptologists now believe that there was a royal funerary complex consisting of a funerary enclosure and a tomb for each king in Abydos. Therefore the royal tombs are now believed to have been located in that area rather than in Saqqara. Nevertheless, there are some problems that this view has not focused on yet. At least five enclosures at Abydos have been attributed to First Dynasty kings-aha, Djer, Djet, and Den, and to queen Meritneith, among the eight or nine monarchs of the period. But the dating of the other enclosures (including the possible enclosure of King Aha) is quite uncertain due to the lack of inscribed material associated with them. One possible dating method, recently * Ph.D. Student, Nanzan University; JSPS Research Fellow Vol. XXXIII

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3 ABYDOS WARE AND THE LOCATION OF THE EGYPTIAN FIRST DYNASTY ROYAL TOMBS tested by O'Connor, is to measure the layout of the enclosures, focusing in particular on the details of the gateways; the value of such a criterion is still uncertain, and we have to wait for further results. Therefore at least three kings -Anedjib, Semerkhet, and Qaa-have still not been associated with a funerary enclosure.(6) In the case of King Anedjib, the last but two kings of the First Dynasty, his tomb in Abydos (Tomb X) is of inferior quality when compared to the tombs of other kings or to the contemporary mastabas in Saqqara. Most scholars are now in favour of Saqqara as a cemetery for high officials.(7) They usually cite the names of officials(8) found within the mastabas as supporting evidence. However, in any one tomb, one or more king's name have also been found on inscribed objects, and little is known about the relationships among the people named, who may include people who placed offerings in the tomb at later times. Moreover, there is the case of tomb 3357, in which over 700 occurences of the name of King Aha were found but no other names.(9) There is therefore still ample room for further investigation on the status of the Saqqara cemetery, although the recent discoveries at Abydos strengthen the claim that the tombs there contained the actual burials of the First Dynasty kings. Strictly speaking, it is no exaggeration to say that we will never know the best answer to the issue until we find the bodies of the First Dynasty kings. That, however, is nearly impossible now.(10) In spite of much discussion devoted to these tombs, until recently little attention has been given to the artifacts found in them. Therefore, in this paper I review the location of the Egyptian First Dynasty royal tombs in the light of the artifacts. I shall focus upon the so-called 'Abydos Ware,' a type of Early Bronze Age Palestinian pottery which was imported into Egypt at the time.(11) I. Methods The ideal strategy for reviewing the location of the royal tombs through a study of the finds would be to examine all the artifacts uncovered from all the tombs at Abydos and Saqqara and to compare the cultural features of both cemeteries. However, the Abydos tombs have suffered greatly from robbery, fire, and demolition since ancient times. I therefore decided first to check carefully all the objects found (by studying the reports from both sites) and then Vol. XXXIII

4 reject those objects which cannot contribute to an identification of the true location of the royal tombs. The objects stolen were principally valuable materials such as precious stones and ivory. Ordinary objects of daily use were already widely produced and had spread all over Egypt. I selected so-called 'Abydos Ware' for investigation for several reasons. The first reason was, as just noted, that pottery is not usually stolen and damaged comparing with other artifacts. Even when it suffers some damage, often the fragments can be found. That is why pottery is utilized to establish archaeological dating all over the world. Indeed, for decades Abydos Ware has been important for establishing the relative chronology of Egypt and Palestine. The names of the Egyptian kings found with this pottery give significant clues for interpreting the chronological relation between two areas (Table 1). Kantor noted that the first appearance of the pottery in the reign of King Djer, indicates the beginning of the Early Bronze Age II period in Palestine. The chapter on Egypt and Palestine in the standard work edited by Ehrich, "Chronologies in Old World Archaeology", devotes a great part of it to Abydos Ware and its ability to contribute to our knowledge of the relative chronology between the two areas.(12) Table 1 Comparative Chronology between Egypt and Palestine (Southern Canaan) (modified from R. Gophna, "Early Bronze Age Canaan: Some Spatial and Demographic Observations," in The Archaelogy of Society in the Holy Land (ed. by T.E. Levy), London, 1995, p. 279-Table 1) 4 ORIENT

5 ABYDOS WARE AND THE LOCATION OF THE EGYPTIAN FIRST DYNASTY ROYAL TOMBS The second reason why I choose Abydos Ware was because of another important feature of pottery. Changes in style due to time and regional differences are characteristic of all pottery, and this is particulaly true in the case of Abydos Ware. As some scientific analyses (such as those commissioned by Hennessy(13)), suggest, this pottery was mainly produced in the area of the Dead Sea, which is consistent with the fact that the Egyptian kings of the First Dynasty, especially the early kings, had extended their influence to that region. Since the publication in 1955 of Yadin's article(14), which raised the possibility of Egyptian penetration into Palestine, excavation in that region has progressed greatly. Numerous objects with the names of the Egyptian kings, Egyptian-like mud-brick architecture, Egyptian-like pottery, and so on have been uncovered from such sites as En-Besor and Tel Erany (Fig. 2). For this reason, some scholars even say that Palestine was under the control of the Egyptian kings as a kind of colony, especially in the Early Bronze I period.(15) Although the nature of the political relationship is still controversial, an abundance of archaeological evidence clearly points to the presence of members of the Egyptian elite in the area. In addiiton, there is ample evidence that powerful local rulers in Egypt imported Palestinian pottery as early as the late Predynastic period (preceding the First Dynasty). Recent discoveries of much Palestinian wares(16), notably the pottery found in the late Predynastic king's tomb U-j in Abydos, clearly demonstrate that such imports flourished among the upper Egyptian ruling group. Since the kings of the First Dynasty are believed to have come from the local area(17), the distribution of Abydos Ware in Egypt may become a key to understanding the true location of the royal tombs. The final reason for investigating Abydos Ware was that I have been able to obtain information on a large number of unpublished Abydos Ware sherds from the Ashmolean Museum in Oxford and the Petrie Museum in London. So far, the Abydos Ware from Abydos cemetery has been presented only in the form of rough sketches in the reports of Petrie (Fig. 3).(18) Thus, the total number of items found at Abydos and the details of the pottery remain unclear. The pottery of Saqqara, by contrast, has been relatively well presented. The data can be found in Emery's "Great Tombs of the First Dynasty" series. Emery labeled the Abydos Ware with a "G" and divided it into fifteen sub-types, with a number for each sub-type.(19) Because of this discrepancy in publications it would be wrong to say that the amount of Abydos Ware at Saqqara is much Vol. XXXIII

6 Fig. 2 Map of EBI sites with Egyptian Finds in Canaan [modified from The Nile Delta in Transition (see, notes no. 15), p. 444] 6 ORIENT

7 ABYDOS WARE AND THE LOCATION OF THE EGYPTIAN FIRST DYNASTY ROYAL TOMBS ABYDOS. ROYAL TOMBS: AEGEAN POTTERY. VIII. ALL ABOVE FROM ZER. Fig. 3 Drawings of 'Abydos Ware' in a Report of Abydos by F. Pertie [F. Petrie, Abydos I, London, 1902, Pl. VIII.] Vol. XXXIII

8 greater than the amount at Abydos; we are now able to review the location of the First Dynasty royal tombs on the basis of an analysis of an expanded and reorganized corpus of Abydos Ware. II. Data In this section, the reorganized data on Abydos Ware, including unpublished data from the Ashmolean Museum in Oxford and the Petrie Museum in London, are presented in the order of each king's reign in the First Dynasty. The Abydos Ware is divided into two types: Red Polished Ware, and Light Faced Painted Ware. Both represent the best quality of pottery available at that period.(20) The height of the Red Polished Ware vessels ranges from 20 to 50 centimetres. As the name indicates, most of this ware has a red slip, and it is burnished on the outside with a pebble. It was designed to contain fluids such as wine and oil. Handles were often attached; the most common style was a handle looping from the rim to the shoulder. The base was flat, and sometimes highstamped. Flasks and various types of jars were the main shapes. Firing techniques varied; indeed recent scholars tend to separate Red Polished Ware into several categories based on the firing technique used. The pottery fired at high heat is often called "Metallic Ware",(21) whereas the pottery fired at low heat is often called "Red Polished Ware". However, the definitions vary with different scholars, and the description of the pottery in the excavation reports does not give enough information to allow an assignment to firing categories. Therefore I do not propose such categories in this catalogue, calling all the material simply "Red Polished Ware." A detailed description of the Red Polished Ware which I observed in Oxford and London will be discussed in section III (4) "Production Techniques". This type of pottery has been discovered from as far north as the region of Tel el Judeideh in Turkey to as far south as the periphery of the Dead Sea in Palestine. Light Faced Painted Ware vessels are smaller than those in Red Polished Ware, being from 10 to 40 centimetres tall. They were covered with a creamy slip, and some geometric patterns are painted on the surface in red. Jugs and juglets are the main shapes, and usually one handle is attached, from the rim to 8 ORIENT

9 ABYDOS WARE AND THE LOCATION OF THE EGYPTIAN FIRST DYNASTY ROYAL TOMBS Fig. 4 Distribution of Abydos ware in Canaan and Egypt [A. Ben-Tor, The Archaeology of Ancient Israel, New Haven and London, p. 107-Map 4.2] Vol. XXXIII

10 the shoulder, as is also the case of Red Polished Ware. The contents of Light Faced Painted Ware vessels were probably oil or wine. The largest number of examples has been discovered in Arad, but some have been found in Beth Yerah, Beth Shean, and Jericho. Dates for the two types are slightly different. Within Egypt, the Red Polished Ware appeared in the Delta (such as at Minshat Abu Omar) in the final stage of the Predynastic period. But the Light Faced Painted Ware did not appear until the second king of the First Dynasty, King Djer. As for distribution, the Red Polished Ware has been found at Saqqara, Tarkhan, Lahun, and Abydos, whereas the Light Faced Painted Ware comes from Abusir el-meleq, Saqqara, and Abydos. Catalogue In this catalogue, the revised data on Abydos Ware is presented according to site, with material from each site arranged in the order of the kings reigns in the First Dynasty. Although detailed description of each piece is not possible here due to limitations of space, some notable features will be discussed in section III (4). The numbers given for each piece are the collection numbers of the museums where they are kept. In the heading of each line, "R" indicates Red Polished Ware and "L" Light Faced Painted Ware. Other abbreviations are: E. = Ashmolean Museum, Oxford; UC. =Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaology, London; BM=British Museum, London; CAM=Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge; OI=Oriental Institute Museum, Chicago; Berlin=Berlin Museum in the former East Germany; Unknown=present location unknown. All pieces are unpublished except those with references in []. Publication cited in abbreviated form are: "Ameineau"=E. Ameineau, Les nouvelles fouilles d'abydos, I-IV, Paris, "Bonnet" =H. Bonnet, Ein Frugeschichtliches Graerfeld bei Abusir, Leipzig, "Courtiers"=F. Petrie, Tombs of the Courtiers and Oxyrhynchus, London, "GTI"=W. B. Emery, Great Tombs of the First Dynasty, Part I, Cairo, "GTII" =W. B. Emery, Great Tombs of the First Dynasty, Part II, London, "GTIII"=W. B. Emery, Great Tombs of the First Dynasty, Part III, London, 10 ORIENT

11 ABYDOS WARE AND THE LOCATION OF THE EGYPTIAN FIRST DYNASTY ROYAL TOMBS "Hemaka"=W. B. Emery, Tomb of Hemaka, Cairo, "Lahun"=F. Petrie et al, Lahun II, London, "Macramallah"=R. Macramallah, Un cimitiere archaique de la classe moyenne du peuple a Saqqara, Cairo, "RTI"=F. Petrie, The Royal Tombs of the First Dynasty, Part I, London, "RTII" =F. Petrie, The Royal Tombs of the Earliest Dynasties, Part II, London, "Scharff"=A "Spencer"=A. Scharff, Die Altertumer der Vor - und Fruhzeit Agyptens. Berlin, J. Spencer, Catalogue of Egyptian Antiquities in the British Museum, V: Early Dynastic Objects, London, "Tarkhan I"=F. Petrie, Tarkhan I and Memphis V, London, Abydos King Aha (Tomb B ) R-E.4029: Fragments from large vessel, Strap handles, Comb-dressed outside King Djer (Tomb O) L-E.1830: Sherd, Light Faced Painted Ware R-E.3157: Pear-shaped body, Light brown ware [Abydos I, Pl. VI-17] R-E.3158: Pot. Contents burnt, Grey-black ware [Abydos I, Pl. VIII-7] R-E.3160: Neck of jug, Brown ware [Abydos I, Pl. VIII-4] R-E.3162: Neck of jug or flask, Dark brown ware R-E.3240: Jug. Light brown ware, [Abydos I, Pl. VIII-5] R-E.3241: Part of flask, Pinkish-brown ware [RTII, Pl. LIV-22] R-E.4030: Base of large vessel, Brown ware [Abydos I, Pl. VIII-12] R-E.4031: Lower part of vessel, Brown ware, Combed [Abydos I, Pl. VIII-6] (from grave O30 of Tomb O) R-E.4034: Lower part of flask, Pinkish-brown ware [Abydos I, Pl. VIII-8] R-E.4064: Lower part of jar? Pinkish-brown ware R-UC.17385: Fragment of flat-based jar (jug), Brown ware R-UC.17386: Sherd from base of flat based jar, Brown ware R-UC.17387: Base of stump-based jar, Brown ware R-UC.17388: Handle sherd, Red ware, Combed Vol. XXXIII

12 R-UC.17389: Upper part of burnished jug, Red ware R-UC.17390: Handle body sherd from burnish jug R-UC.17391: Neck of burnish jug R-UC.17392: Rim sherd with neck from burnish jug, Red ware R-UC.17393: Rim sherd with neck from burnish jug, Red ware R-UC.17394: Neck sherd from jug, Red ware R-UC.17395: Rim sherd with neck from burnished jug, Red ware R-UC.17396: Rim sherd with neck from vase, Red ware R-UC.17397: Rim sherd with neck from vase, Damaged by fire, Red ware R-UC.17398: Rim and neck of vase, Damaged by fire, Brown slip R-UC.17399: Handle of jug? Damaged by fire R-UC.17402: Upper part of vase? Well fired, Brown ware R-UC.17403: Neck from vase, Brown ware R-UC.17436: Handle from jug? Pink ware R-UC.17437: Sherd from burnished vase, Red ware R-BM328: Body of stump-base flask or jug? Red ware [Abydos I, Pl. VIII-3; Spencer, Pl. 42] R-BM35548: Flask? Red ware [Abydos I, Pl. VIII-2; Spencer Pl. 42] R-Unknown: Body of flask [Abydos I, Pl. VIII-1] R-Unknown: Neck of flask? [Abydos I, Pl. VIII-11] King Djet (Tomb Z) L-E.3164: Sherd, Light Faced Painted Ware [RTII, Pl. LIV-1] R-Unknown: Combed ware [Courtiers, Pl. IV-9] Queen Meritneith (Tomb Y) R-UC.17421: Neck of burnished jug, Red ware King Den (Tomb T) R-E.1833: Neck and part of body of jug, Light brown ware L-E.3170: Sherd, Light Faced Painted Ware [Abydos I, Pl. VIII-17] L-E : Sherd, Light Faced Painted Ware [RTII, Pl. LIV-4] L-E.3172: Sherd, Light Faced Painted Ware [Abydos I, Pl. VIII-15] L-E.3173: Sherd, Light Faced Painted Ware [Abydos I, Pl. VIII-16] L-E.3175: Sherd, Light Faced Painted Ware R-E.3176: Sherd, Brown ware, Lattice burnished outside 12 ORIENT

13 ABYDOS WARE AND THE LOCATION OF THE EGYPTIAN FIRST DYNASTY ROYAL TOMBS R-E.3177: Part of neck, handle, and shoulder of handled flask, Brown ware R-E : Part of neck, handle, and shoulder of flask, Brown ware R-E.3179: Neck and rim of flask, Red-brown ware R-E.3180: Fragment from body of jar? with vertical strap handle, Brown ware R-E : Fragment from flask, small vertical strap handle, Brown ware R-E.3183: Neck and Shoulder of flask, Brown ware, Lattice burnished outside R-E.3209: Neck and Shoulder of bandle flask, Light red ware R-E.1287J: Sherd, Brown ware, Lattice burnished (Queen's Chester room) R-UC.17408: Neck from vase (jug?), Metallic ware R-UC.17409: Neck from vase (jug?), Pink burnished ware R-UC.17410: Neck from vase, Drab burnished ware R-UC.17411: Neck from vase R-UC.17412: Neck from vase, damaged by fire R-UC.17420: Sherd of pink pattern-burnished ware R-BM330a: Neck from Red Polished Ware [Spencer, Pl. 42] L-BM330g: Sherd, Light Faced Painted Ware [RTII, Pl. LIV-3?; Spencer, Pl. 42] L-Berlin 15558: Sherd, Light Faced Painted Ware [Abydos I, Pl. VIII-19, Scharff, Tafel 19] L-Berlin 15687: Sherd, Light Faced Painted Ware [Scharff, Tafel 19] (from This tomb or Tomb Q) L-Berlin 15688: Sherd, Light Faced Painted Ware [Scharff, Tafel 19] (from This tomb or Tomb Q) L-Unknown: Globular jar, Light Faced Painted Ware [Amelineau 1899, Pl. 13-4] King Semerkhet (Tomb U) R-E.1309: Fragment of flask? Drab-black ware, blackened by fire [RTI, Pl. VII- 9] L-E.3212: Lower part of jug, Light Faced Painted Ware [RTII, Pl. LIV-11] R-E.3214: Fragment of neck and body of jug, Red ware R-E.3215: Fragment from shoulder of jug, Red ware [RTII, Pl. LIV-25] R-E.3216: Fragment from shoulder of jug, remains of red slip below, brown slip above [RTII, Pl. LIV-23] L-E : LIV-5] Upper part of jug, Light Faced Painted Ware [RTII, Pl. Vol. XXXIII

14 L-E.3218: Sherd from jug, Light Faced Painted Ware [RTII, Pl. LIV-16] L-E.3219: Sherd from shoulder of jug, Light Faced Painted Ware L-E.3220: Upper part of body of jug, Light Faced Painted Ware L-E.3221: Fragment of shoulder of jug, Light Faced Painted Ware L-E.3222: Fragment from shoulder of jug? Light Faced Painted Ware [RTII, Pl.L-IV-15] L-E.3223: Sherd, Light Faced Painted Ware [RTII, Pl. LIV-12] L-E.3224: Fragment from shoulder of jug? Light Faced Painted Ware [Abydos I, Pl.VIII-18] L-E.3225: Fragment from shoulder of jug? Light Faced Painted Ware [RTII, Pl. LIV-6?] L-E.3226: Sherd, Light Faced Painted Ware? [RTII, Pl. LIV-7?]?-E.3227: Fragment from neck of flask, Grey ware, Combed L-E.3228: Neck and shoulder of juglet, Buff ware [RTII, Pl. LIV-19] L-E.1031: Sherd from shoulder of jug, Light Faced Painted Ware (Hall) L-E.1033: Fragment of jug? Light Faced Painted Ware (Hall) R-E.1286A: Sherd, Buff Ware (Queen's Chester room) L-UC.17422: Lower half of stump vase, Light Faced Painted Ware L-UC.17423: Neck from jug, Light Faced Painted Ware L-UC.17424: Sherd with handle base from jug, Light Faced Painted Ware L-UC.17425: Sherd, Light Faced Painted Ware L-UC.17426: Eight sherds from body of jug, Light Faced Painted Ware L-UC.17427: Sherd, Light Faced Painted Ware L-UC.17428: Sherd from body of jug, Light Faced Painted Ware L-UC.17429: 5 sherds stuck from jug, Pink ware L-UC.17430: 2 sherds from jug, Light Faced Painted Ware?? UC.17431: Neck from jug, Light Faced Painted Ware?? UC.17432: Neck from jug, Light Faced Painted Ware?? UC.17433: Neck from jug, Light coloured?? UC.17434: Neck from jug, Light coloured L-UC.36753: Sherd from shoulder of jar? Light Faced Painted Ware R-OI6280: Neck and shoulder of flask, Red Polished Ware [Ehrich, Pl.22-43] R-OI6281: Fragment from body of flask? Metallic ware, lattice burnished [Ehrich, Pl.22-43] R-OI6282: Fragment [Ehrich, Pl ] from body of flask? Metallic ware, lattice burnished 14 ORIENT

15 ABYDOS WARE AND THE LOCATION OF THE EGYPTIAN FIRST DYNASTY ROYAL TOMBS R-OI6284: Sherd of handle of jug, Metallic ware [Ehrich, Pl ] R-OI6285: Fragment from body of jug or flask with a strap handle, Metallic ware [Ehrich, Pl ] R-OI6286: Fragment from body of flask? Metallic Ware, lattice burnished [Ehrich, Pl ] R-OI6287: Base of stump-base flask? [Ehrich, Pl ] R-BM330b: Neck of jug, Red Polished Ware [Spencer, Pl. 42] L-BM330c: Fragment from jug, Light Faced Painted Ware [Spencer, Pl. 42] L-BM330d: Fragment from jug, Light Faced Painted Ware [Spencer, Pl. 42] L-BM330e: Fragment from jug, Light Faced Painted Ware [Spencer, Pl. 42] L-BM330f: Fragment from jug, Light Faced Painted Ware [Spencer, Pl. 42] L-CAM: Fragment from jug, Light Faced Painted Ware L-CAM: Fragment from jug, Light Faced Painted Ware L-CAM: Fragment from jug, Light Faced Painted Ware L-Berlin 15243: Fragment from jug, Light Faced Painted Ware [Scharff, Tafel 19] L-Berlin 15247: Neck of jug, Light Faced Painted Ware [Scharff, Tafel 19] L-Berlin15248: Fragment from jug, Light Faced Painted Ware [Scharff, Tafel 19] L-Berlin15249: Fragment from jug, Light Faced Painted Ware [Scharff, Tafel 19] L-Berlin 15250: Shoulder of jug, Light Faced Painted Ware [Scharff, Tafel 19] L-Berlin 15251: Fragment from jug, Light Faced Painted Ware [Scharff, Tafel 19] L-Berlin 15254: Fragment from jug, Light Faced Painted Ware [RTII, Pl. LIV- 13?; Scharff, Tafel 19] King Qaa (Tomb Q) R-E.3236: Neck and part of shoulder of flask, Red ware [RTII, Pl. LIV-17] R-E.3237: Lower part of flask, small flat base, Light red ware [RTII, Pl. LIV- 21] R-UC.17438: Handle form flask? Light red ware R-UC.17439: Neck from flask, Light red ware R-OI(No number): Fragment from shoulder of flask? [Ehrich. Pl ] R-OI(No number): Fragment from body of flask? [Ehrich, Pl ] R-OI6283: Base of stump-base flask? Metallic ware [Ehrich, Pl ] Vol. XXXIII

16 L-Berlin 15587: Sherd, Light Faced Painted Ware [Scharff, Tafel 19] Findspots unknown R-E.3243: Sherd, Brown ware, one vertical lug handle R-E.3244: Sherd, Brown ware, one strap handle R-E.3245: Fragment of shoulder of jug? Brown ware, Decorated applied encircling strip R-E.3246: Fragment from shoulder, Brown ware, Lattice burnished, Decotated applied encircling strip? E.3247: Sherd, Drab ware, Decoration in dull red: lattice R-E.3248: Sherd, Brown ware, lattice-burnished R-E.3249: Sherd, Brown ware, lattice-burnished L-E.3250: Fragment from jug? Light Faced Painted Ware? E.3252: Sherd, Pinkish-brown ware, comb-dressed outside L-E.1029: Fragment of neck and shoulder of jug, Light Faced Painted Ware (Hall) L-E.1030: Fragment from neck and shoulder of jug, Light Faced Painted Ware (Hall) R-E.1036: Fragment of flask, Light brown ware, lattice-burnished (Hall) R-UC.17400: Rim sherd with neck from vase, Red ware R-UC.17401: Rim sherd with neck from vase, Red ware R-UC.17404: Sherd, Metallic ware, lattice?-burnished R-UC.17405: Sherd, Metallic ware, lattice?-burnished R-UC.17406: Sherd, Metallic ware, lattice?-burnished R-UC.17407: Sherd, Metallic ware, lattice?-burnished R-UC.17413: Half rim sherd with upper attachment of neck handle from jug, Grey metallic ware R-UC.17414: Half rim sherd with neck from vase, Grey ware R-UC.17415: Two sherds of flask? Metallic ware R-UC.17416: Neck sherd with handle attached to shoulder from jug, Black ware R-UC.17417: 2 sherds from jug, Black ware R-UC.17418: 3 sherds from jug? Metallic ware? L-UC.17419: 2 sherds from painted ware? R-UC.17435: Rim sherd with neck from vase, Pink ware R-UC.17436: Handle from vase, Pink ware R-UC A+B: 2 sherds, lattice-burnished 16 ORIENT

17 ABYDOS WARE AND THE LOCATION OF THE EGYPTIAN FIRST DYNASTY ROYAL TOMBS R-UC : Fragment from neck and shoulder of jar, traces of red slip? UC.35786: Fragment from neck and shoulder R-UC.36609: Body sherd, Red Polished Ware R-UC.36610: Body sherd, Red Polished Ware R-UC.36611: Body sherd, Red Polished Ware R-UC.36613: Body sherd R-UC.36614: Body sherd, Brown ware R-UC.36615: Body sherd damaged by fire R-UC.36616: Body sherd, Brown coated ware R-UC.36617: Sherd from flat base, partially combed R-BM329: Neck from jug, Red Polished Ware [Spencer Pl. 42] R-Berlin 15579: Sherd, Red Polished Ware [Scharff, Tafel 19] R-Berlin 15580: Sherd, Red Polished Ware [Scharff, Tafel 19] R-Berlin15581: Sherd, Blackened by fire, Red Polished Ware [Scharff, Tafel 19] R-Berlin 15582: Sherd, Red Polished Ware [Scharff, Tafel 19] R-Berlin 15583: Body from flask with large handle, Red Polished Ware [Scharff, Tafel 19] R-Berlin 15584: Sherd, Lattice burnished ware [Scharff, Tafel 19] R-Berlin 15585: Sherd, Lattice burnished ware [Scharff, Tafel 19] R-Berlin 15586: Sherd, Red Polished Ware? [Scharff, Tafel 19] L-Unknown: Sherd, Light Faced Painted Ware [RTII, Pl. LIV-2] L-Unknown: Upper part of jug, Light Faced Painted Ware [RTII, Pl. LIV-8] L-Unknown: Shoulder of jug, Light Faced Painted Ware [RTII, Pl. LIV-9] L-Unknown: Shoulder of jug, Light Faced Painted Ware [RTII, Pl. LIV-10] L-Unknown: Shoulder of jug, Light Faced Painted Ware [RTII, Pl. LIV-14] L-Unknown: Shoulder of jug, Light Faced Painted Ware [RTII, Pl. LIV-18] L-Unknown: Shoulder of jug, Light Faced Painted Ware [RTII, Pl. LIV-20] R-Unknown: Neck sherd of jug, Red Polished Ware [RTII, Pl. LIV-24] Saqqara Reign of King Djet R-(Tomb 3504) G9-1, G10-1, G11-1, G12-1, Unidentified G-20 [GTII, P. 72- Fig. 98] Vol. XXXIII

18 Reign of King Den R-(Tomb 3035) Typel2-2 [Hemaka, p. 50] R-(Tomb 3036) G1-5 [GTI, p. 152-Fig. 86] R-(Tomb 3506) G1-3, G2-1, G3-1, G10-7, G12-24, G13-1, G14-1, G15-1, G16-17 [G TIII, Pl. 70-a, 75] R-(Tomb 3507) Unidentified-20 L-(Cemetery North-west of Serapeum, Tomb 222) Light Faced Painted Ware?-1 [Macramallah, Pl. XLV-XLVI, L] L-(Cemetery North-west of Serapeum, Tomb 38) Light Faced Painted Ware?-1 [Macramallah, Pl. XLV-XLVI, L] R-(Cemetery North-west of Serapeum, Tomb 17) S1-1 [Macramallah, Pl. XLV- XLVI, L] R-(Cemetery North-west of Serapeum, Tomb 35) S-1 [Macramallah, Pl. XLV- XLVI, L] R-(Cemetery North-west of Serapeum, Tomb 40) S-1 [Macramallah, Pl. XLV- XLVI, L] R-(Cemetery North-west of Serapeum, Tomb 42) S5-1 [Macramallah, Pl. XLV- X LVI, L] R-(Cemetery North-west of Serapeum, Tomb 78) S4-1 [Macramallah, Pl. XLV- XLVI, L] R-(Cemetery North-west of Serapeum, Tomb 197) S2-1 [Macramallah, Pl. XLV-XLVI, L] R-(Cemetery North-west of Serapeum, Tomb 198) S6-1 [Macramallah, Pl. XLV-XLVI, L] R-(Cemetery North-west of Serapeum, Tomb 222) S3-1 [Macramallah, Pl. XLV-XLVI, L] R-(Cemetery North-west of Serapeum, Tomb 225) S2-1 [Macramallah, Pl. XLV-XLVI, L] R-(Cemetery North-west of Serapeum, Tomb 229) S2-2 [Macramallah, Pl. XLV-XLVI, L] Reign of King Qaa R-(Tomb 3500) G9-1, G16-2 [GTIII, Pl. 123] R-(Tomb 3505) G1-4, G6-1, G11-2, G12-7 [GTIII, Pl. 31] L-(Tomb 3120) Light Faced Painted Ware?-1 [GTI, P. 124-Fig. 68] 18 ORIENT

19 Lahun ABYDOS WARE AND THE LOCATION OF THE EGYPTIAN FIRST DYNASTY ROYAL TOMBS Date unknown (Tomb 757) R-E.1379: Stump-base jug, Red Polished Ware [Lahun II, Pl. LIII-97C] R-UC.16250: Stump-base jug, Red Polished Ware [Lahun II, Pl. XLV & LIII, 97D] R-Unknown: Red Polished Ware [Lahun II, Pl. LIII, 97E] Tarkhan King Djet (Tomb 1060) R-UC.17088: Neck and handle of jug, Black slip [Tarkhan I, Pl. XIX-24] R-UC.17089: Ten sherds of one jug, Pattern burnished red ware [Tarkhan I, Pl. XVI-4, XXX-6, 7] Abusir el-meleq Date unknown (Tomb 9B-1) L-Unknown: Jug, Light Faced Painted Ware [Bonnet, Tafel. 27] III. Analysis We may analyse the Abydos Ware data under the following headings: (1) the amount of Abydos Ware at Abydos and Saqqara; (2) the amount of Abydos Ware surviving from each king's reign; (3) sites of which Abydos Ware has been discovered; (4) production techniques; and (5) manufacturing sites. (1) The Amount of Abydos Ware at Abydos and Saqqara (Table 2) Table 2 shows the amount of Abydos Ware known so far in Egypt. Although the amount of Red Polished Ware published from Saqqara (135 pieces) was previously much greater than the amount from Abydos (17), the newly collected data now indicate that the amount from Abydos (114) is nearly Vol. XXXIII

20 Table 2 The Amount of Abydos Ware in Egypt * The amount given in perenthesis indicate the number previously published in the excavation reports. the same as the amount from Saqqara (135). In addition, there is a marked increase in the amount of Light Faced Painted Ware from Abydos, from 25 to 62, whereas only three jugs of the ware have been found at Saqqara, and only one at Abusir el-meleq. Moreover, the identification of some Light Faced Painted Ware from Saqqara is quite uncertain.(22) Thus we may say that this ware type was found mainly at Abydos. We can also assume that there was a greater amount of both ware types in the tombs at Abydos, because the frequent robbery and destruction of its tombs will have led to a higher level of loss. Consequently, the large amount of both ware types reconfirm that Abydos Ware was mainly deposited at Abydos and Saqqara, whose status as royal cemeteries is at issue. (2) The Amount of Abydos Ware preserved from Each King's Reign (Table 3) The distribution of Abydos Ware for each king's reign is presented in table 3. The fact that much of the ware appears during the reign of King Den suggests that the amount of Abydos Ware, in particular the amount of Red Polished Ware (111 pieces out of a total of 254), may relate to the length of each king's reign. King Den is thought to have ruled Egypt for about 50 years. Support for this correlation can be derived from the fact that no Abydos Ware has been found from the reign of King Anedjib, who ruled for 10 years.(23) There is a steep rise, however, in the amount of Abydos Ware during the reign of the next king Semerkhet, who also ruled for about 10 years.(24) These figures might be just chances of preservation, however the most likely explanation is that the amount of Abydos Ware deposited related both to internal and to foreign affairs. The 20 ORIENT

21 ABYDOS WARE AND THE LOCATION OF THE EGYPTIAN FIRST DYNASTY ROYAL TOMBS Table 3 The Distribution of Abydos Ware from Each King's Reign reason why a great amount of Abydos Ware was deposited in the reign of King Den may be because his reign was long and stable, and because he had strong connections with Palestine, as is suggested by the Palermo Stone and the ivory tag from Abydos in the British Museum.(25) But the next king, King Anedjib, suffered unstable political conditions that may have resulted in a usurpation by his successor, King Semerkhet. Therefore, it is likely that the belongings in his tomb X, the most modest tomb in the Abydos cemetery, were removed and Vol. XXXIII

22 placed in the tomb of Semerkhet (Abydos tomb U), as the excavator Petrie suggested.(26) As for other pottery, it is important to note that Red Polished Ware has been found in the tombs of all the kings of the First Dynasty except for Anedjib, whereas Light Faced Painted Ware comes mostly from the latter half of the dynasty, after the reign of King Den. In light of this, Kantor defined the reign of King Djer, which marks the first appearance of Light Faced Painted Ware, as the beginning of the Early Bronze Age II Period in Palestine.(27) The largest amount of Red Polished Ware does not come from the large tombs of the reign of King Den at Saqqara. As Table 3 demonstrates, tomb 3506 had 56 pieces of Red Polished Ware, in contrast to the meagre amount found in much larger tombs, such as tombs 3035 and 3036, which had 2 pieces and 5 pieces respectively. The same observation applies to tomb 3507, which had 20 pieces, in spite of its being smaller than tombs 3035 and As already noted, the data for each king's reign demonstrate that there are differences in the distribution of Abydos Ware between Red Polished Ware and Light Faced Painted Ware. Let us now extend our discussion to the findspots of both ware types in Abydos and Saqqara. (3) The Findspots of the Two Ware Types (Table 4) As table 4 indicates, we notice a difference in the placement of each ware type within the tombs at Abydos, Saqqara, and Tarkhan. Although Red Polished Ware has been discovered in various parts of the tombs, Light Faced Painted Ware has been found only in the central burial chamber. In more than one tomb Red Polished Ware was placed in sub-rooms, subsidiary graves, and around stairs. In Saqqara tomb 3505(28), while seven jars were refound in the main burial chamber, four jars were placed on the entrance stairway and one was found in the small funerary temple connected to the main tomb structure. Similarly, apart from three pieces in the main chamber, 20 fragments were found in various rooms in the superstructure and substructure of tomb 3504 at Saqqara.(29) In addition, at least five subsidiary graves at Abydos and Saqqara contained this ware type. In contrast, Light Faced Painted Ware has been found only in the main burial chambers at Abydos and Saqqara.(30) While it is true that the burial chambers predominate in the burial apartments of the Abydos tombs more than they do at Saqqara(31), the fact that no example of Light Faced Painted Ware has 22 ORIENT

23 ABYDOS WARE AND THE LOCATION OF THE EGYPTIAN FIRST DYNASTY ROYAL TOMBS Table 4 The Discovery Sites of Both Ware Types (Single-chamber tombs are excluded. For the Abydos tombs, Petrie mentioned the findspots in the case that the Abydos ware was found except the central burial chamber.) been discovered in any subsidiary graves at Abydos highlights a difference in usage between the two ware types. Now let us look at the manufacturing sites of Vol. XXXIII

24 both ware types. (4) Production Techniques (Fig. 5) Examination of both ware types at the Ashmolean Museum in Oxford and the Petrie Museum in London reveal clear differences between their respective manufacturing processes. Examples of Red Polished Ware exhibited the following features: For the surface finish, polishing was the standard technique, but some fragments are clearly combed, lattice-burnished, decorated with nail-shaped marks, or decorated with narrow elevated bands on the shoulder. Although fire has damaged the Abydos tombs and their artifacts, a great variety of colours is preserved among the Red Polished Ware fragments. A red slip was usually applied, but some pieces were clearly covered with a brown or dark-brown slip. The red slip itself varied between dark red, light red, orange, red-brown, pink-brown, light brown, light red-brown, and pink. A notable feature is the light red colour that was peculiar to the reign of King Qaa. Variations could also be observed in the clay; there was both pure clay, and coarse clay with inclusions of sand grains that could easily be seen with the naked eye. Finally, various rim shapes were evident. Both a thin-rimmed type and a thick-rimmed type could be found in one tomb, for example Abydos tomb T (reign of Den). Since most fragments of Light Faced Painted Ware are from the lower part of vessel bodies, it is impossible to compare the rim shapes of Red Polished Ware to those of Light Faced Painted Ware. Light Faced Painted Ware was produced relatively consistently in its style throughout the First Dynasty. Some distinguishing features are the painting style and the use of a turning device after the reign of Semerkhet. The painting style changes from simple to complicated patterns, as has been pointed out by Amiran(32), and the use of a wheel for Red Polished Ware is also evident from about the same time. One notable point is that some examples found at Saqqara have quite different painting styles from other finds of the same ware type. The one recovered from Tomb 3120 has a bird motif around the shoulder between two dotted triangles. Nothing like this motif has been found elsewhere in Egypt and Palestine, so this could be an imitation of Light Faced Painted Ware 24 ORIENT

25 ABYDOS WARE AND THE LOCATION OF THE EGYPTIAN FIRST DYNASTY ROYAL TOMBS Fig. 5 Various types of Abydos Ware [1:E3158, 2:E3240, 3:E3157, 4:E3160, 5:E3241, 6:E3179, 7:E3243, 8:E3246, 9:E3227, 10:E3237, 11:E3164, 12:E3220, 13:E , 14:E3212, 15:E3172, 16:E3219] Vol. XXXIII

26 manufactured in Egypt. Similarly, the decoration of painted semicircles round the neck of the example from Tomb 38 in the cemetery North-west of the Serapeum has no parallel in this ware from Egypt or Palestine. In this case, however, some roughly comparable painting patterns have been found at Arad; this piece may have been brought from the Arad region separately from other Light Faced Painted Ware found in Egypt. (5) Sites of manufacture I conclude this section by discussing the manufacturing sites. It has been proposed that the manufacture of Red Polished Ware spread from Palestine to Turkey(33), but that is not strictly valid. Since the necks of the Red Polished Ware found in what is now Turkey are slightly longer than those found in Egypt, so that we are dealing with a separate type. Red Polished Ware manufacturing sites should be considered to be limited to an area around the Dead Sea.(34) Scientific analyses commissioned by Hennessy support this argument.(35) Stager has also suggested that there is a similarity in the shape of the ware found in the area around the Dead Sea and of the ware found in Egypt.(36) The area in Palestine includes sites at Megiddo, Jericho, Gezer, and Ai (Fig. 4). There is plenty of evidence showing that the traits of the Red Polished Ware from these areas are similar to those found in Egypt.(37) Most sites that have Light Faced Painted Ware are around the Dead Sea. The best known site that has produced Light Faced Painted Ware in quantity is Arad.(38) With respect to this fact, Amiran once suggested that this painted style may have spread from southern to northern Palestine(39); this idea might be confirmed by a study of the tradition of pottery-making in the area. It should be noticed that not every type of painted pattern found in Egypt has so far been discovered in Palestine. IV. Discussion I have looked at five aspects of Abydos Ware: the amounts of Abydos Ware at Abydos and Saqqara; the amounts from each king's reign; findspots of the two ware types; production techniques; and sites of manufacture. In this section, I discuss general aspects of the evidence for both Red Polished Ware and Light Faced Painted Ware, and what the evidence implies about the true 26 ORIENT

27 ABYDOS WARE AND THE LOCATION OF THE EGYPTIAN FIRST DYNASTY ROYAL TOMBS location of the royal tombs. (1) The Nature of the Red Polished Ware Almost the same number of sherds of Red Polished Ware were found in the cemeteries at Abydos and Saqqara (114 and 135, respectively). This is much greater than the amount found in other cemeteries, such as Tarkhan, Abusir, or Lahun. Therefore, this ware seems to have been imported for the highest-ranking members of the state who were buried in the two cemeteries under discussion. Particularly at Abydos, the assumed region of origin of the rulers of the First Dynasty, large imported vessels were deposited consistently from the end of the Predynastic period to the end of the First Dynasty (except for the reign of King Anedjib), although the shape of pottery imported changed from phase to phase. Thus it is likely that the import of this pottery and of what it contained was consistently significant for people of very high rank who were buried at Abydos and Saqqara during the period of transformation from Dynasty 0 through the First Dynasty. It seems likely that the large variety of vessel shapes indicates that they held a variety of contents. Wine and oil are the most likely contents, and the recent scientific analysis of Serpico confirms the presence of these substances(40). The pottery was buried in various locations within the tombs, such as the central burial chamber, in a magazine, in the funerary chapel, in a subsidiary grave, and around the entrance stairway. Therefore, the pottery is likely to have been used mainly as vessels for presenting offerings for the afterlife of the deceased. Moreover, the fact that even middle-class people buried in the subsidiary graves had Red Polished Ware suggests that it was provided not only to the highest-ranking officials but also to those who lived in close proximity to them. Perhaps these middle-class people were involved in the importation of the pottery. The area where the Red Polished Ware was manufactured is a further pointer to its function. As suggested by Hennessy, this area seems to have centred around the Dead Sea and was the part of Palestine that seems to have experienced the controversial Egyptian 'colonization' mainly in the Early Bronze I period (from Naqada III to the first half of the First Dynasty). Although the nature of this 'colonization' is still disputed, there is considerable evidence for the presence of Egyptian officials in the region; they may have controlled the export of local products. Such products may have been sent to Egypt to be Vol. XXXIII

28 consumed for their lives, with offerings for the tombs of the Egyptian elite. The concurrent burial of much local Egyptian pottery containing other kinds of oil and wine offerings in the Abydos and Saqqara tombs is another indication that the area where the Red Polished Ware was manufactured may have been regarded by Egypt as an integral part of the country at that time. Thus, we may conclude that the Red Polished Ware contained local Palestinian products which were exported to the elite of Egypt in a process in which they themselves participated directly in Palestine. (2) The Nature of the Light Faced Painted Ware In contrast to the Red Polished Ware, more than 95% of the Light Faced Painted Ware found in Egypt was discovered at Abydos. As mentioned earlier, the identification of the Light Faced Painted Ware in Saqqara is quite uncertain, this therefore well established that this type of pottery was concentrated at Abydos. The question then arises: why was this pottery brought to Abydos, while hardly any was deposited in the tombs of extremely important people at Saqqara, which was so near to the capital city of Memphis? From the Palestinian region where the pottery was manufactured, Abydos was much more distant (500km further south) than Saqqara. When the import of Light Faced Painted Ware began in the reign of King Djer, Red Polished Ware was already being buried in the contemporary Saqqara tombs. There is also a difference in the time span of Light Faced Painted Ware compared to that of Red Polished Ware. Although neither ware has been discovered from the reign of King Anedjib, the import of Light Faced Painted Ware seems to have ceased during the reign of King Semerkhet, the penultimate king of the dynasty. From King Qaa, the last king of the dynasty, only one sherd has been discovered, in tomb Q at Abydos. Similarly, only one jar of the ware was found in tomb 3120 at Saqqara, but this is of a very different from these found from other kings' reigns, so its identification is doubtful. It is difficult to judge why this Palestinian pottery decreased in frequency, but the reign of King Qaa was a period of change which led to the establishment of a new dynastythe Second Dynasty. Therefore, it is likely that political changes affected the import, and indeed, only little contact between Egypt and Palestine has been known for the Second Dynasty. Another significant feature of the distribution of Light Faced Painted Ware is its placement in the tombs. It has been found only in the central burial 28 ORIENT

29 ABYDOS WARE AND THE LOCATION OF THE EGYPTIAN FIRST DYNASTY ROYAL TOMBS chamber of the Abydos tombs. As noted above, the amount placed in the central burial chamber of one tomb at Abydos is altogether greater than the amount found at Saqqara, but the fact that no example of Light Faced Painted Ware has been found in the subsidiary graves at Abydos seems to indicate that this pottery was placed near the body of the tomb owner, that is, of the king. Light Faced Painted Ware is distinguished by its unusual production techniques. It is relatively small in overall size and has beautifully painted decoration, giving it a quite different appearance from the Red Polished Ware and from Egyptian pottery for daily use. Such small pottery is not suitable for transporting heavy contents, rather, it must have been used as a vessel for liquids such as highly valued oils or wine, as has already been suggested. Moreover, the constant uniformity of this pottery's production technique throughout the First Dynasty seems to indicate that, unlike Red Polished Ware, it was produced at one, or at most a few sites, in Palestine. It is noteworthy that among the more than 60 sherds of Light Faced Painted Ware found in Egypt, no two painted patterns are the same in Palestine. Each constituent of the painted patterns is found more than once, but no identical patterns exist. Since this pottery was produced over much more than a century, it is plausible that it was manufactured specifically for export to Egypt and use in a particular context. If so, what was the location of the manufacturing sites? The most likely manufacturing site proposed is Arad, the site in Palestine where most of the Light Faced Painted Ware has been found up to now.(41) Although the actual manufacturing site has not been discovered, it is reasonable to assume that it was in the vicinity of Arad, to judge by the development of the painted patterns on the pottery (from simple to complicated) as Amiran suggested. Arad was outside the area of proposed Egyptian 'colonization' during the Early Bronze I period,(42) but the town was probably significant to Egypt for a special reason: Arad was important as a center for the distribution of copper products in Palestine. That there was a close relation between Arad and the Sinai copper mines has been supported by the proposal that the clay of much of the pottery in daily use in Arad came from Sinai(43). Next to gold, copper was the most valuable metal of the First Dynasty, and many artifacts of copper have been discovered in the elite cemeteries at Abydos and Saqqara.(44) There is ample evidence that Egyptian kings had close relations with Arad, such as an ostracon found there with the name of King Narmer of Dynasty 0.(45) Vol. XXXIII

30 From the same area, seal impressions with the names of the Egyptian First Dynasty kings have been found at En-Besor, approximately 90km west of Arad.(46) Thus, the area including the possible manufacturing site of the Light Faced Painted Ware seems to have been very significant place for the Egyptian elite and kings. V. Conclusion The observations on the distribution of Abydos Ware in Egypt indicate that there was a clear difference in the way that the two types of imported pottery were used. The Light Faced Painted Ware seems to have been much more highly prized; I suggest that it was intended to be placed near the body of the deceased king. By contrast, Red Polished Ware was important more as a container for imported goods such as wine and oil-although its use too was restricted to a small number of elite people. I conclude that the Abydos tombs, with their large amount of Light Faced Painted Ware, were indeed for royal use, while the Saqqara tombs were for high officials. Notes This article is a revised version of my Japanese article, "Reconsideration of the Location of the Egyptian First Dynasty Royal Tombs-from the Viewpoint of Palestinian Pottery" ORIENT, Bulletin of the Society for Near Eastern Studies in Japan, Vol. XXXIX (1996), pp My special thanks are due to Dr Helen Whitehouse (Ashmolean Museum, University of Oxford) and Mrs Barbara Adams (Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology, University of London) for their assistance in collecting the material and their kind permission to use the unpublished data of the Abydos Ware in the museums. I also grateful acknowledge helpful discussions with Professor John Baines (Faculty of Oriental Studies, University of Oxford) on several points in this paper. The abbreviations of journals are those of W. Helck, E. Otto, and W. Westendorf (eds.), Lexikon der Agyptologie, Wiesbaden, (1) The results of the excavation can be seen in the following reports. E. Amelineau, Les nouvelles fouilles d'abydos ( ), 3 vols, Paris, ; F. Petrie, The Royal Tombs of the First Dynasty, Part I, London, 1900; The Royal Tombs of the Earliest Dynasties, Part II, London, 1901; Abydos I, London, 1902: Abydos II, London, (2) See, W. Emery, The Tomb of Hemaka, Cairo, 1938; The Tomb of Aha, Cairo, 1939; Great Tombs of the First Dynasty, I, Cairo, 1949; Great Tombs of the First Dynasty, II-III, London, And R. Macramallah, Un cimitiere archaique de la classe moyenne du peuple a Saqqara, Cairo, (3) W. Emery, Archaic Egypt, Harmondsworth, (4) D. O'Connor, "New Funerary Enclosures (Talbezirke) of the Early Dynastic Period at Abydos," JARCE 26 (1989), pp (5) G. Dreyer et al., "Friedhof U," in "Umm el-qaab: Nachuntersuchungen im 30 ORIENT