Copyrighted material List of Illustrations Acknowledgments Author s Note

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1 CONTENTS List of Illustrations Acknowledgments Author s Note xi xiii xv Introduction: Icons of Irishness 1 1. Visualizing Antiquity Classifying Taste Meet Me at the Fair Keepsakes and Souvenirs Proclaiming Independence, Expressing Solidarity 121 Afterword: Specters and Apparitions 143 Notes 147 Selected Bibliography 183 Index 197

2 ICONS OF IRISHNESS FROM THE MIDDLE AGES TO THE MODERN WORLD Copyright Maggie M. Williams, All rights reserved. NGI 2230: The Last Circuit of Pilgrims at Clonmacnois, County Offaly Artist: George Petrie Irish, 19th century, c.1838 Graphite and watercolour on paper Unframed: 67.2 x 98 cm Photo National Gallery of Ireland NGI 2452: The Fourth Visit by Queen Victoria and Prince Albert to the 1853 Irish Industrial Exhibition, Dublin, (for a lithograph c.1856), Exhibited 1856 Artist: James Mahoney Irish, 19th century Watercolour and graphite with white highlights on paper Unframed: 72.8 x 65.6 cm Photo National Gallery of Ireland First published in 2012 by PALGRAVE MACMILLAN in the United States a division of St. Martin s Press LLC, 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY Where this book is distributed in the UK, Europe and the rest of the world, this is by Palgrave Macmillan, a division of Macmillan Publishers Limited, registered in England, company number , of Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 6XS. Palgrave Macmillan is the global academic imprint of the above companies and has companies and representatives throughout the world. Palgrave and Macmillan are registered trademarks in the United States, the United Kingdom, Europe and other countries. ISBN: Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Williams, Maggie M. Icons of Irishness from the Middle Ages to the modern world / by Maggie M. Williams. p. cm. (New Middle Ages) Includes bibliographical references. ISBN National characteristics, Irish. 2. Ireland Civilization Medieval influences. 3. Ireland Civilization Celtic influences. 4. Signs and symbols Ireland. 5. Cultural property Ireland. 6. Irish Ethnic identity. I. Title. DA925.W dc A catalogue record of the book is available from the British Library. Design by Newgen Imaging Systems (P) Ltd., Chennai, India. First edition: December

3 INTRODUCTION: ICONS OF IRISHNESS At the turn of the nineteenth century a tide of intellectual, cultural, political and economic changes in Ireland and a growing need to establish a national, non-british identity with its own distinct cultural and artistic traditions coincided with the discovery of a number of key treasures from Ireland s Golden Age... The ringed high cross, along with other key pieces of metal work, soon became major icons of Ireland s unique heritage. Irish High Crosses Exhibition, Exhibition Catalog Every object is... a temporal archive, a repository for multiple pasts and a trigger for unanticipated futures. Jeffrey J. Cohen, Afterword: Intertemporality, in The Postcolonial Middle Ages This book is about objects that share visual properties but occupy distinct temporal moments of production and reception, execute different functions in their past and present incarnations, and engage multiple audiences in diverse ways. Each chapter is also about the cognitive and social processes that form Irish identities: collecting, performing, exhibiting, remembering, and proclaiming. These many strains of visibility and experience intertwine through time and space, nestling around the objects to generate webs of past, present, and perpetual meanings. The following chapters highlight that complexity by juxtaposing medieval and modern things, considering their significance for both scholarly and popular audiences, and allowing them to penetrate into the distant past from their vantage points in the here and now. Ringed crosses, circular brooches, and interlace designs operate as emblems of Irish identity that bear a unique relationship to both modernity and the Middle Ages. Unlike such familiar symbols as the shamrock, the harp, and the Irish wolfhound, crosses and interlace were not invented in modern, politicized contexts. They draw upon Ireland s ancient past to produce meanings, conjuring up an imagined realm of mystical druids, warrior Celts, and pious Christian monks. They insist upon an eternal

4 2 ICONS OF IRISHNESS Irish solidarity by blending the present with the past, and they celebrate Irish alterity through formal contrasts with other artistic traditions. They are the tangible imprints of transhistorical and widely held beliefs about Irishness: Irishness is picturesque and quaint; Irishness is simultaneously urbane and rural, literary and folksy; and above all Irishness is unlike Englishness in profound ways. These transient concepts are made visible in the objects that enliven the pages of my narrative; the works of art that occupy my attention here are the iconic representations of Irishness in the perceptible world. This book is not intended as a traditional art-historical work that traces the use of cultural symbols from their points of origin across a progressive historical timeline 1 ; on the contrary, it juxtaposes medieval and modern vignettes in recognition of Carolyn Dinshaw s impulse to manifest a queer history by making entities past and present touch. 2 Here, those entities collide by means of their thingness, compelling readers to consider the queerly nonlinear capacity of material culture to generate new meanings in perpetuity. In each chapter, purposeful and sometimes disconcerting anachronisms offer glimpses of present objects that manifest multiple pasts and diverse realities. These pairings were partly inspired by Lee Paterson, who once wrote, Is anachronism always a sign of primitivism, a function of conceptual incapacity or ignorance? It could also, after all, be a way of staging an act of historical understanding that is different from but equally complex as that which seeks to recover the past authentically. 3 As so many eminent historians and authors have argued, any attempt to recover the past is also an opportunity to reproduce it. 4 Scholars, artists, and manufacturers offer purportedly authoritative versions of history, each of which including my own has its prejudices and priorities. My aim is to open and occupy a space where we can search for and explore the constant, contemporary creation and invention of medieval Irish art. Eileen Joy, Myra Seaman, and Jeffrey Cohen, particularly in their collaborative mode as members of the babel Working Group, have recently engaged with this kind of medieval cultural studies. My work responds to their 2007 call for a new focus on intertemporality that might begin to trace and possibly unravel some of the intersecting and tangled relations between... the supposed beginnings and endings of history, especially in relation to issues of identity and self-formation. 5 Kathleen Biddick s forthright discussion of the exclusion of activist and subversive voices in academic discourses has also been inspirational. As she says, There is something to be learned by shifting attention from the fathers to those excluded on the exterior of medieval studies. 6 Aligning myself with these genuinely revolutionary projects is of great personal

5 INTRODUCTION 3 importance to me as a human being and a scholar, and I aspire to do justice to every outsider object, artist, and text that I investigate. From politically active antiquarians to untrained creators of minor popular crafts, people working outside of the academy and arts institutions have always produced significant and intriguing icons of Irishness. Those texts and objects are included here, as examples of a vibrant creative and intellectual tradition that deserves attention. An inspirational colleague once asked me to consider the ethical valence of my work, and that question has pushed me in profoundly new directions, resulting in what I hope is a socially conscious history of images. This book is the culmination of years of lived experience as an academic and political activist who firmly believes in celebrating the difference and value in all cultural production. It explores how scholarly, artistic, and commercial audiences in the nineteenth, twentieth, and twenty-first centuries have touched the medieval past, regenerating new versions of it in their own surroundings. The remainder of this introduction serves to clarify which objects I ve chosen and the methods that I employ to give them a kind of voice. I begin with the objects, providing an overview of my medieval examples and their afterlives in the modern world. From there, I define a sequence of crucial terms, clarifying my use of them in the text. After that, I describe my scholarly models and provide a brief summary of other work on similar topics, concluding with a short chapter outline. The Models The objects that form the focal point of my narrative include carved stone crosses, precious metal jewelry, and illuminated manuscripts. The crosses are monumental sculptures that still stand in the Irish landscape, surviving in the hundreds in both complete and fragmentary forms. They range in height from approximately seven to nearly twenty-two feet, and most are adorned with relief carvings that include abstract geometrical designs as well as narrative, figural imagery deriving primarily from the Bible and the Lives of the Saints. 7 I also frequently return to an iconic piece of jewelry the so-called Tara Brooch which occupies much of its own chapter, and reappears in other contexts. 8 Occasionally, I turn to illuminated manuscripts, particularly the Book of Kells. 9 Many of these items have very exact provenances, and even physical links to the Irish earth, at least in their earliest forms. Others are mysterious in their origins; we do not know precisely who made them, when, or why. What they all share, though, is the aura of cultural authenticity. Pointing

6 4 ICONS OF IRISHNESS to a moment that has alternately been called the early Christian period, the early Midde Ages, or even the Dark Ages, they embody antiquity in their very forms. Most appeared in Ireland between the seventh and tenth centuries, an epoch that offers modern observers very little in the way of facts or hard evidence about much of anything, let alone artistic production. It is precisely this factual darkness that drew me to such a place and time in the history of art. In the absence of artists names and biographies, records of collaborative workshops or wealthy patrons with explicit demands, anyone interested in experiencing these objects is forced to do so at a visceral level. Certain iconographic and stylistic puzzles can be solved, but at the end of the day, the imagery invites its audience to take it at face value and do with it whatever they wish. For many viewers, the mysterious objects that emerge from such historical darkness have become emblematic of an ancient and eternal Irish culture. Each thing has offered itself up for replication in various pasts and presents, sometimes in its entirety and other times only in excerpts. Motifs such as intertwined knotwork designs, for instance, are often borrowed from the medieval works. As nonfigural images without specific, identifiable external referents, these interlacings allow for multiple, even contradictory interpretations. Entire works have even been copied wholesale, reemerging in modern contexts as cultural signifiers. While the original items may have had precise religious or social meanings, the modern reproductions are generally self-referential in the sense that they tend to stand for Irishness itself. Revealing ancient forms, they enter the modern lexicon as signs of a contemporary cultural identity that embraces its venerable past. The Copies Some of the things that I consider have never been in contact with Ireland at all past or present. They are copies: visually familiar objects that draw from medieval sources but operate in entirely modern arenas. From perfectly rendered duplicates to collages and original works that barely indicate their medieval brethren, reproductions and recreations play a major role in this study. In each case, the methods and processes of copying are significant because they determine the form, function, and value of the remade object. To clarify my thinking about copies, I cite Annabel Wharton s classification of the terms reproduction and replication. She writes: The terms replica/replicate and reproduction/reproduce... suggest a difference in the strength of the claim made for the relation between the surrogate

7 INTRODUCTION 5 and its referent. That disparity is suggested by the following sentence: A couple that reproduces has children; a couple that is replicated has been genetically reconstituted through cloning. 10 Wharton s notion of a replica as a precise, scientifically engineered likeness is distinguished from a reproduction, recreation, or representation. It is virtually impossible to create an exact replica, in the sense that Wharton describes it above, without the use of mechanized technologies. In this book, things that are made by machines are described as replicas, even when the mass-produced versions reiterate unique, artistically rendered originals. The terms reproduction, reconstruction, and representation, on the other hand, all involve a greater degree of human agency in the translation from original to copy. To reproduce or reconstruct something is to make it over again, while to represent it is to show it in another medium or context. In all three scenarios, a subjective agent intervenes in the copying process, leaving traces of his or her thoughts, beliefs, aesthetic choices, and stylistic preferences on the final product. Agency appears at the moment of reception, too, when meaning is made in the triangulation of prototype, copy, and audience. This affective power of the copy was famously analyzed by Gilles Deleuze in his work on the Platonic notion of the simulacrum. Deleuze wrote: The simulacrum is not a degraded copy. It harbors a positive power which denies the original and the copy, the model and the reproduction [emphasis Deleuze s]. 11 For him, the simulacrum s power depends heavily upon the audience s experience. As he says, The observer becomes part of the simulacrum itself, which is transformed and deformed by his point of view. 12 In this sense, many of the objects that I analyze can also be categorized as simulacra, whose manifest content bears a visual resemblance to their medieval models, but whose latent content is entirely modern. Some of the copies that I explore are reimagined in powerful, original works of modern art, while others are mass-produced, participating in the cultural hegemony or culture industry that writers like Theodor Adorno and Antonio Gramsci once critiqued. 13 However, as Walter Benjamin so famously argued in his essay The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction, technological replication can also serve to democratize and disseminate imagery. 14 My project is to ruminate on the significance of modern art objects as well as mass-produced imagery that aids viewers in constituting their cultural communities, regardless of whether those visual signifiers possess exchange value, aesthetic value, or even originality.

8 6 ICONS OF IRISHNESS Keywords In a nod to both Raymond Williams and Annabel Wharton, I call this section keywords, using it to offer my own synthesized definitions of the essential terms that appear frequently throughout my narrative. 15 Icons The term icon has important echoes with medieval studies and cultural studies, not to mention philosophy and semiotic theory. 16 In popular discourses, a cultural icon is generally understood to be the paradigmatic example, the most memorable and familiar version of something. For instance, Marilyn Monroe might be described as an icon of seductive, movie-star femininity. Used in that sense, the phrase icons of Irishness appears in both popular and scholarly texts, as demonstrated in the first epigraph above, which was published in a 2010 exhibition catalogue from the National Museum of Ireland. On occasion, the term icon is also used to describe images that are not only omnipresent, but also flexible in meaning, and often commodified. The well-known theorist of visual and literary media W. J. T. Mitchell produced a short essay on this idea in 2009, which he called Obama as Icon. 17 Mitchell refers to Barack Obama s hyper-visibility in the 2008 presidential campaign, citing his biracial identity and qualities of intimacy and monumentality, accessibility and reserve, enormous energy and casual relaxation as elements of his iconic status. 18 As Mitchell writes, The key to Obama s iconicity resides not in determinacy but ambiguity, not in identity but differential hybridity. 19 For Mitchell s analysis of Obama, iconic status depends entirely upon interpretation. Similarly, icons of Irishness are the ultimate, changeable symbols of cultural identity whose meaning depends upon their viewing contexts. From an art-historical perspective, icons are very special things. 20 Visible manifestations of omnipotent spiritual beings like Christ or the Virgin Mary, painted icons were alternately revered and despised in medieval arenas. The history of medieval icons has been written from a number of different perspectives, but Hans Belting s seminal work Likeness and Presence: A History of the Image before the Era of Art has particular significance here. 21 As he argued, a history of images is perhaps more meaningful in a medieval context, as the notion of art-for-art s sake was essentially incompatible with the material culture of Europe in that historical moment. Belting s emphasis on the receptive contexts of imagery echoes my interest in examining meanings across time. In his words, The image, in the end, appears as paradoxical as does the human being

9 INTRODUCTION 7 him- or herself who made use of it: along with the sequence of societies and cultures, it changes all the time, but on another level, it remains always the same. 22 This notion of the visual sameness and receptive difference of images across time is fundamental to my thinking about icons of Irishness. For Belting, painted images of saints or holy figures make present through both time and space the otherwise inaccessible spiritual essences that they represent. As he writes, In the medieval context the image was the representative or symbol of something that could be experienced only indirectly in the present, namely, the former and future presence of God in the life of humankind. 23 Similarly, the images that I analyze here invoke transient cultural themes and realize collective identities that encompass various pasts, presents, and futures. Like Byzantine icons, they can simultaneously mirror the desires of contemporary audiences and open precise lines of vision onto a former and future cultural presence. At times, medieval icons fueled controversy regarding the appropriate role of images in spiritual life. Such paintings were intensely significant, drawing upon intangible theological entities and the practice of affective piety to produce meanings. Similarly, the icons of Irishness that occupy the following pages constitute visualizations of immaterial ideas about culture, history, self, and community. Like medieval icons, they also arouse controversy regarding the value of images as works of art and as the repositories of cultural significance. Particularly in their modern, reproduced form, icons of Irishness draw upon formal and iconographic similarities with medieval images to generate meaning. Their visual resemblance to past works recalls the formal consistency of religious icons over thousands of years. Just as a twenty-first-century Eastern Orthodox icon of the Virgin Mary is identifiable as such because it resembles comparable early Christian depictions, images of Irish crosses or ringed brooches have significance because they look like medieval things. Their functions and meanings might experience total transformations in different times and places, but their appearance remains virtually identical. The mystical origins of religious icons can also be compared to icons of Irishness in some cases. Often, the legends surrounding medieval icons suggested divine and magical creative forces, as well as the capacity of the objects to produce miracles. Many of the objects that I examine here are also encased in legends of mysterious origins and subsequently endowed with the ability to inspire powerful responses of faith and belief, providing audiences with a shared focal point for their devotion to Irishness itself.

10 8 ICONS OF IRISHNESS Medieval My understanding of the term medieval, and by association the Middle Ages, presupposes diversity in every sense. Even a cursory examination of European culture between around 500 and 1500 CE reveals a plethora of difference and cross-pollination. Recent work in medieval studies has begun to explore this complexity in new ways, as in 2000s The Postcolonial Middle Ages and 2009s Medievalisms in the Postcolonial World. 24 As Jeffrey Cohen asks in the introduction to the former volume, How might postcolonial theory encourage an opening up of what the medieval signifies, and how might that unbounded middle space then suggest possible futures for postcolonial theory? How can medieval studies with its turn to the distant past bring about the new? 25 For both Cohen and myself, the medieval is a powerful signifier that does not have to be restricted to a tightly controlled moment in time and space. Especially in art history, the idea of a uniform Middle Age was entirely an invention of the Renaissance and modern periods. The humanist focus on the representation of anatomy in the form of the classical nude led to broad generalizations about the medieval as categorically different from the rest of the traditional Western canon. My use of the term calls that periodization into question, critiquing the by-now familiar notion of a hard-edged alterity that is thought to separate the premodern from the modern worlds. 26 Cohen, too, cautions against positioning the Middle Ages as modernity s Other, ultimately allowing for varied approaches to the question of temporal divisions. In his words, It makes little sense to choose between continuist and alterist approaches to the study of the Middle Ages when both these metanarratives contain truths about the relation of the medieval to the modern and the post-modern. 27 Such flexible thinking is invaluable to the study of Irish art, since neither the Romans nor the Renaissance in its truest form ever really hit the island, making the idea of a middle sandwiched between two classical moments particularly dysfunctional. The designation of the seventh to tenth centuries as a period of early Christianity works a bit better, but the reality is that Christianity already had a strong foothold in the country for at least two hundred years by the time monuments like the ringed crosses began to be carved in stone. For many audiences, the notion of a transcendent Celtic culture is a better fit. In their eyes, Ireland was always and still remains Celtic, even when it was also medieval. For me, an object can be medieval in style even when it does not derive from a particular time and place in Europe s history. A wonderful example of a contemporary sculpture that I would categorize as medieval in style is Alice Maher s 1995 House of Thorns ( figure 0.1 ).

11 INTRODUCTION 9 Figure 0.1 Alice Maher, House of Thorns, Source: Courtesy of the artist and Green on Red Gallery, Dublin. A small rectangular structure with a steeply pitched roof, House of Thorns mimics the shape of early Christian stone oratories. Such ruined structures remain standing in monasteries throughout Ireland, generally dating between approximately the seventh and the tenth centuries. 28 Maher s work evokes their form, changing their smooth, grey, limestone exteriors to a bristling accumulation of thorns. Every surface of the sculpture protrudes with sharp, threatening spikes, like some kind of house-shaped cactus. The shape of these gabled oratories was already reproduced in the Middle Ages proper, in both the capstones of ringed high crosses and in the so-called house- or tomb-shaped reliquary shrines, such as the sixth- to tenth-century examples from Lough Erne, county Fermanagh. 29 Maher s sculpture draws upon that longstanding cultural reference, reviving an early Christian form in a contemporary work of art. In a sense, the very thorniness of Maher s sculpture might be described as medieval; the implied violence, torture, or self-mutilation in the name of faith are all facets of a prevalent modern understanding of the brutal European dark ages. 30 Maher s work depends upon a visual resemblance to objects that were produced in the historical Middle Ages, but it also exists in the present and resonates with contemporary Irishness (and Catholicism) in ways that cannot be discounted. By identifying works like House of Thorns as medieval in style, I want to highlight their formal relationship to ancient objects as well as their ability to encode multiple meanings and transmit those to diverse audiences over time.

12 10 ICONS OF IRISHNESS Celtic Most historians tell us that a people called the Celts immigrated to Ireland sometime around 500 BCE, probably from central Europe. 31 All of the ancient sources on the Celts were written by outsiders, so there is much discussion about the validity of that narrative. Modern scholars have engaged in complex debates about the very existence of a Celtic culture, not only in Ireland, but also across the European continent. Comparative linguistics was once the primary method of categorizing such peoples, but archaeological and historical investigations have not supported their existence in any unified way, in either prehistoric or medieval contexts. 32 In Ireland, archaeological excavations and material history tell us that ancient people engaged in a type of artistic production that highlighted curvilinear designs, such as spirals and intricate forms of tracery, but it is unclear whether we can reasonably call those people Celts. Their predilection for organic forms and elaborately swirling patterns later fused with Christian iconographies in Ireland, resulting in some of the heavily decorated objects that interest me here. As a result of the debates surrounding these ancients known as Celts, scholarship on whatever pre-christian cultures might have been producing art in Ireland is varied and complex. In Dennis Harding s recent work, The Archaeology of Celtic Art, he breaks through the existing academic boundaries of pre- and early Christian, preferring to redefine what we mean by Celtic art using stylistic and social criteria. 33 He expands the definition to include both Iron Age and later art, wherever it uses certain motifs, like spirals, and wherever it draws upon certain media or functions, like equestrian embellishments. Harding describes the early Christian period as a spectacular revival of Celtic art. 34 In this, he aligns himself much more closely with the popular understanding of Celtic culture as a constant in Ireland that remained prevalent even after most of the population converted to Christianity. He opens his introduction with a statement that resonates with many of the themes I present in this book: An internet search for Celtic Art immediately offers patterns of Celtic interlace and knot-work, elements of later Celtic art in fact derived from Mediterranean or Germanic origins, or images of high crosses of ninthcentury date or later and related icons of the early Celtic church. 35 Following Harding s observation, I conceive of the term Celtic as a descriptor of a broader, stylistic phenomenon, rather than as a word that refers to a specific historical culture. My use of the term parallels my understanding of medieval as a stylistic qualifier that can transcend time

13 INDEX Page numbers in italics refer to illustrations. Aberdeen, Earl of, 57, 86 87, 91 We Twa memoir, 86 Aberdeen, Ishbel, Countess of, 57, 59, 86, We Twa memoir, 86 Acheson, William, 58 Act of Union (1801), 69 Adam and Eve, 98 Adams, Gerry, 129 Adorno, Theodor, 5 Ahenny, county Tipperary casts of crosses at, 143 sandstone cross, 106 8, 107 See also Kilklispenn crosses Ahern, Ellen, 91 Albert, Prince Consort of England, 69, 78 alterity, 2, 11, 134 hard-edged, 8 Altschul, Nadia and Davis, Kathleen Medievalisms in the Postcolonial World, 8 American Miniaturist, 116, 117 Anderson, Benedict, 12 Anglo-Irish, 48, See also Protestant Ascendancy Anglo-Norman invasion, 42 Anglo-Norman ruins, 41, 82 83, 88 animal designs, 71, 109, 119, Annals of Clonmacnoise, 25, 28 Anthony, St., 25, 98 An Túr Gloine collective, 61 appliqué work, 91 Aran knits, 94, 100 archaeological excavations, 10, 20, 33, 35, 44, 46 Archaeological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, 71 Ardagh Chalice, 14, 45 Johnson replica, 144 Ard Tiprat (pagan holy site), 28 aristocracy, 17, 27 29, 43, 48, 53 59, 65, 102 Art Journal, 101 2, 104 Art Nouveau, 61 Arts and Crafts movement, 56 authenticity, 3 4, 17, 42, 65, 83, 101 BABEL Working Group, 2, 15 Ballyspellan (Ogham) Brooch, 49, 59 Bancroft, Hubert Howe The Book of the Fair, 85, Belfast, 17, , 130 Belting, Hans Likeness and Presence, 6 Benjamin, Walter The World of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction, 5 Bennett, Tony, 79 Benson, John, 67 bern-bróc, 52 Bettystown, county Meath, 47 Biblical imagery, 3, 25, 27 Biddick, Kathleen, 2, Blarney Castle Village (Chicago World s Fair), 80, 89 90

14 198 INDEX Blarney stone, 90, 92 Bleeke, Marian, 32 33, 35 bog-oak carvings, 17, 94, 101 5, 119 Bogside Artists Manifesto, 121 Book of Armagh, 70 Book of Celtic Wisdom, 118 Book of Durrow, 35 Book of Kells, 3, 78, , 118, 122 Gerald of Wales and, 47 Gospel books and, , Kells Embroidery and, 57, 59, 63 Lion of Mark and, , 139, 142 Quoniam page, 114 Book of Leinster, 123 Book of Lindisfarne, Boyne, Battle of the (1690), 129 Boynes, St., Cross, near Drogheda, 72 brat (cloaks), 32 33, 48, 50 51, 59, 60, 65 Brett, David, 99 Brian Boroimhe Harp Brooch, 54 55, 59 Brigid, St., 50 British Army, Special Air Services Unit, 131 Broighter Collar (gold torque), 71 Bronze Age, 64, 71, 97 brooches, 1, 7, 11, early Christian meanings and, excavations of, 49 19th-century meanings, 52 World s Fair facsimiles, 83 See also Tara Brooch and other specific brooches Builder, The, Burke, Edmund, Buscema, John, 125, 128 Byrne, Maeve, 60 Cadogan, Lady, 57 Caesar, Julius The Gallic War, 134 Camille, Michael, 48, Domesticating the Dragon, 14 Carroll, Michael, 100, 105, , 138 Peace Be to This House, , 113 Cormac s chapel at, 75, 91, 101, 105 bog oak carvings of, 101, 105 World s Fair replicas of, 88, Castledermot, county Kildare, North Cross Irish National Heritage Park replica, 97 98, 98 castles, 82, 83 Cavan brooches, 59 Cead Mile Failte banner, 90 Celtic, defined, Celtic crosses (carved stone crosses; high crosses; ringed crosses), 3, 11, 16, 95, 132 bog oak carvings and, 101 Centracchio s Charming Irish Cottage and, Clonmacnoise and, 19 26, 24, 31 early carvings, 1, 8, 50 employed as icons of Irishness, 21, 43, 78 eternal presence and, 145 Glasnevin cemetery and, 145 inscriptions on, 49 Irish Industrial Exhibition and, 66, 71 79, 95 Irish National Heritage Park casts of, 97 99, 98 Mc Harp miniatures and, , 107, 112 medieval ideals and, miniature replicas of, 100, 119 National Museum of Ireland show of casts of, O Neill and, 21, painted medieval, Petrie and, 21 22, 31, 34, 37, 43 political murals and, 17, 130, semiotic shift in modern copies of, 14 tattoos and, , 140 visual resemblance and, 7 wooden crosses and, 106 World s Fairs and, 83 84, 89

15 INDEX 199 See also Cross of the Scriptures ; and other specific crosses and localities Celtic mythology, , Celtic Spirituality, 108 Celtic style, 14 Celtic warriors, 128, Celto-medieval Irishness ancient past and Irish identity and, 1 2, 4 bog-oak carvings and, 17, 101 5, 119 Carroll manuscripts and, 100, 105, , 138 Centracchio Charming Irish Cottage and, 100, 105, , 116 class and, copies and, 4 6 costumes and, 17, 27, 47 52, 58 61, 63, Dun Emer banners and, 62 elision of pagan Celts with Christian medievals as, 72 Englishness vs., eternal presence and, 145 Glasnevin O Connell monument and, graphic novels and, handicrafts revivals and, 12, 16, 56 63, 65 history collapsed by, 13 as imagined past, 12 13, 56, 58, 79, , 123 independence and rebellion and, 17 18, 119, intertemporality and, 2, 144 Irish Industrial Exhibition and, 66 79, 95 96, 100 Irish National Heritage Park and, keepsakes and souvenirs and, keywords and, 6 13 Mc Harp miniatures and, 100, models for, 3 4 modern identities and, 44 modern reproductions and, th-century reproductions and, O Neill and early popularization of, 16, 21 22, 37 44, 47, 53, 67 Petrie and early interest in, 16, 21 24, 26, 29 44, 53, 67, 70, 73 75, 79, 143, political murals and, 119, , , replicas exhibited as works of art and, Tara Brooch and, 3, 14, 16, 45 48, 52 54, 59, 64 68, 80 81, 95, 106 tattoos and, Tuam Market Cross and, visual resemblance and, 55 World s Fairs and, 17, 68 69, See also Celtic crosses ; icons of Irishness ; and specific individuals ; items ; and localities cemeteries, 26, Centracchio, Kethy Charming Irish Cottage, 100, 105, , 116 chalices, 59, 83 Chantler, Helen Trinity Knot earrings, 63 64, 64 Chapman, Malcolm The Celts, 11 Chatterjee, Partha Whose Imagined Community?, Christianity, 8, 29, 64, 101, 108 Ciarán, St.,, 27 28, 20 Claddagh symbol, 139 Clarendon, Countess and, 54 Clarendon Shawl Brooch, 54 Clarke, Harry, 128 Classon, J., 101, 105 clientship system, 48 49

16 200 INDEX Clonmacnoise, county Offaly, 19 33, 24, 36 37, bog-oak carvings of, 101 Cathedral, at, 30, 41 cross replicas at, 19 20, 97, 132 founding of, keepsakes for sale at, 21 North Cross, 38 O Neill and, 21, Petrie and, 21 24, 23, 29 33, 30, 36 37, 41, 67 ringed crosses and, 145 round tower at, 22, 24, 30, 32 St. Louis World s Fair and, 92 Visitors Centre, See also Cross of the Scriptures Coffey, Mary, Cogitosus Life of Saint Brigid, 50 Cohen, Jeffrey J., 1, 2, 8 Colman Conaillech, Abbot of Clonmacnoise, colonialism, 32, 33, 52, 55, 56, 82, 103 Colum, Mary, 59 Columba, St., Columcille, St., 62 Connell, Denis, 102 Connellan, Corry, 102 copies, 17 affective power of, 5 Irish Industrial Arts Exhibition and, mutual contamination between original and, 13 National Museum of Ireland show of 2010, reproductions vs. replicas and, 4 5 See also replicas ; reproduction, reconstruction, or recreation and specific artists, items, and localities Cork Exhibition (1852), Cormac, Bishop King of Munster, 88, See also Cashel, Cormac s chapel at costume and clothing early Christian, 27, 49 52, 51 Protestant Ascendancy and, 17, 48, 52, 58 61, See also brat ; brooches ; léine Cross of Saints Patrick and Columba, Kells, county Meath ( Kells Cross ), Cross of the Scriptures (Crosse na Screaptra), Clonmacnoise, 20, 22, 24 29, 24, 31, 41, 50, 132 Crucifixion, 25 26, 98 Crystal Palace (London, 1851), 103 Cúchulainn (Irish epic hero), 136 Custom House, World s Fair reproduction, 92 Dalraida brooch, 80 Dargan, William, 69 David, King, 25 Davis, Thomas, 29 Deleuze, Gilles, 5 Dennehy, Maggie, 91 De Paor, Liam, 26 Derry, county, 34 diaspora, 16, 68 69, 79, Dinshaw, Carolyn, 2, 13, 90, 110 dominant culture, 34, 48, Donegal Castle, World s Fair reproduction of, 87, 89, 91 Donegal Industrial Fund, 57, dragons, 125, 128 Drogheda St. Boynes Cross near, 72 St. Lawrence gateway at, Druids, 89, 118 Drumcliffe, county Sligo, crosses, 143 Dublin Castle, 102 Dublin Penny Journal, 36 Dublin Standard, 75 Dudley, Lady, Dun Emer Guild, 57, 59 63, 60, 118 Dunne, Tom, 29 30, 32 3 Dysert O Dea, county Clare, crosses, 76, 143

17 INDEX 201 Eames, Charles and Ray Dining Room Chair, 144 early Christian period, 4, 8, 16, See also Christianity ; medieval or Middle Ages ; and specific churches, monasteries, and religious items Easter Rising (1916), 132 Edgeworth, Maria, 32 embroidery, 57, Emer (wife of Irish-hero Cúchulainn), 60 Emery, Elizabeth, English Gothic, 56 Englishness, Celtic Irishness vs., Epcot Center, 84 Eriu, Fabian, Johannes, 83 Fagan, Patrick, 91 Fir Bolg, 125 Fish, Pat, 137, 142 Lion of Mark tattoo, , 138 Fitzpatrick, Jim, , 133, 135 The Book of Conquests, 122, , King Nuada at the First Battle of Moy Tura, 126 Fland Sinna, King, 25, Flower, Robin, 26 Flynn, Mary, 91 Francis, David R., 81 Gaelic League, 60 Gandon, James, 92 Gaslight Exhibitions, 36 George IV, King of England, Gerald of Wales History and Topography of Ireland, 47 gift exchange, 50 Glasnevin cemetery (Dublin), Gleeson, Evelyn, 60, 63 Glendalough antiquities, 101 Gogan, L.S., 75 Goggin, Cornelius, 102 Gothic Revival style, 61 Graffiti, Ulster, 129 Gramsci, Antonio, 5 graphic novels, 16, 119, , Gregory, Lady, 124 Grimston, Lord, Guintin, Signor, 143 Hamlin, Geoffrey, 87 handicrafts, 14 contemporary, th-century revival, 57 63, World s Fairs and, 68, 83, 85 86, 94 See also specific artists, materials, and works Harding, Dennis The Archaeology of Celtic Art, 10 Hardy, Edel Harp, Linda, 105 6, 110 harps, 55, 139 Hart, Mrs. Ernest, 57, 85 90, 86 Harvey, David, 15 H-Block, See Long Kesh prison Henry, Françoise, 45 heritage studies, 15, 99 Hoffenberg, Peter An Empire on Display, 94 Holsinger, Bruce, 15 Home Rule movement, 91 Honan Chapel, Cork, textiles, 63 Hopkins & Hopkins, 58, 59 Howe, John, 125 Hunterston Brooch, 49 hypermasculine imagery, 125, hyper-visibility, 6 Iafeth (son of Noah), 123 icon, defined, 6 7, 12 icons of Irishness, 3 as alternative to modern society, 13 casts of crosses as, class and, defined, 6 7, eternal presence and, 145 keywords and, 6 13 meanings generated by, 7, 13 18

18 202 INDEX icons of Irishness Continued mystical origins of, 7 8 political nationalism and, 12, , replication and reproduction and, 4 5 roots of, 4 visual codes and, 119 See also Celto-medieval Irishness ; and specific individuals, items, and localities illuminated manuscripts, 3, 17, 64, 70, 119 Carroll and, 100, 105, Mc Harp and, 109, See also Book of Kells and other specific manuscripts imagined community, Imagining an Irish Past: The Celtic Revival (exhibition catalogue), 14 imperialism, 21, 33, 55, 82 inscriptions, 41, 49, 51, interlace designs, 1, 10, 11, 16, 49, 35, 45, 47, 49, 57, 59, 63, 68 71, 106, 109, 111, 114, 119, 125, 128, 132, 136, 137 intertemporality or transtemporality, 1 3, 6 8, 11, 13, 22, 33, 83 84, 87, 100, , 119, 133, 141 Ireland, Republic of, national flag, 132 Irish Arts and Crafts Society, Irish High Crosses Exhibition (Dublin, 2010), 1, 6, Irish Industrial Association (IIA), 57 59, 86, Irish Industrial Exhibition (Dublin, 1853), 17, 66 79, 95 Antiquities Hall, 68, Fine Arts Hall, 68 69, 95 Main Hall, 72 73, 77, 78 Medieval Court, 68 70, 95 miniature replicas, Tuam Market Cross, Irish language, 60, 91 Irish Literary Club, 60 Irish Monthly, 61 Irish National Heritage Park, county Wexford, Irish Ordnance Survey, 21, 29, 33 37, 41, 67 Irish Penny Journal, Irish Republic Army (IRA), Provisional, 131 Iron Age, 10 11, 53 Isidore of Seville, 134 James II, King of England and Ireland, 129 Japan, 144 Jarlath, St. ( Naom Iarflaith ), 61 Jesus Christ, 25 26, 29, 51 52, 114 Christ in the Tomb, 25 Christ s Arrest, 25 Christ s Passion, jewelry, 52 56, 58 59, See also brooches ; and specific aritists and items John Paul II, Pope, 117 Johnson, Edmond, 58 59, 63, 83, 104, Ardagh Chalice replica, 59, 144 Tara and Cavan brooch replicas, 59 Johnstone, Elizabeth, 60 Jones, Arthur, Jones, T.D., 72 73, Joy, Eileen A., 2 Cultural Studies of the Modern Middle Ages, 15 Kells Cross, See Cross of Saints Patrick and Columba Kells Embroidery, 57 Kelly, Gerard Mo Chara, , , Gerry Adams portrait, 129 Loughgall Ambush mural, , 131 Kennedy, Clare, 59, 60

19 INDEX 203 Kennedy, John F., 117 Kennedy, Kate, 91 Kevin, St., 101 Kilcrispin stone cross, 72 Kilkieran crosses, 72, 76 Kilklispenn crosses, North Cross, 40 See also Ahenny, county Tipperary Killamery Brooch, 49 Killarney bog-oak carvings, Kirby, Jack, 125, 128 kitsch, 16, 82, 100, 104 5, 123 knotwork, 4, 10, 35, 59, 63 64, 71, 79, 106, 110, 114, 128, 139, 145 lace, 57, 59, 68, 83, 91, 94 Ladies Irish National Land League, 60 Larcom, Sir Thomas, 33 Last Judgment, law tracts, 52 lay-ecclesiatical relations, 27 29, 50 Leabhar Gabhála Éirenn ( Book of Invasions of Ireland or Book of Taking ), 123, , 134 Leerssen, Joep, 3 Mere Irish and Fior-Ghael, 13 léine (tunics), 48, 50 52, 65 Leningan Harp Brooch, 55 Lerner Newspapers, 115 linen, 50, 57, Lion of Mark, Lithan Limited, 19 Lives of the Saints, 3, 25, 27, 52 Lizzy, Thin, 125 Londonderry, Lady, 57 London exhibition of 1855, 73 Long Kesh prison (H-Block), , 129 Loughgall Ambush, , 131 Loughrea Cathedral, See St. Brendan s Cathedral at Loughrea Louisiana Purchase Exposition, See World s Fair (Louisiana Purchase Exposition, St. Louis, 1904) Lugh Erne, county Fermanagh, 9 Luke, Gospel of, 114 mac Carthy, Cormack, 89 mac Cerbaill, Diarmait, mac Conchobair, Cathal, 28 Mac Cormack, Katherine, 63 Macdonald, Sharon, 99 Mac Lean, Douglas, Mag Tuired or Moy Tura, Battle of, , 126 Maher, Alice House of Thorns, 8 9, 9 Mahony, James, 76 The Fourth Visit by Queen Victoria and Prince Albert to the Irish Industrial Exhibition, 76 78, 77 mandalas, , 114 maps, 34, 72 Market Cross, See Tuam, county Galway Martyn, Edward, 61 Marvel Comics, 125 mass-production, 5, 14, 100, 104 5, Mayo, Lady, 58 Mc Clintock, Anne, 34 Mc Donnell, Laurence Mrs. Hart s Native Irish Village, 86, 87, McGinley, Bridget, 91 Mc Gurk, country man, 101 Mc Harp company, 100, Ahenny cross, 107 Crosses with Meaning catalogue, 106 Etain Mandala, 109 Manuscript Letters, 111 Mc Nay, Ruth, 105 7, 110 medievalism, 15 medieval or Middle Ages defined, 6 8, 12 gap between modern and, 14 revival of, 15, 110 style, defined, 8 10

20 204 INDEX memoirs project, 34 memory, 17, 56, 79, 84, 99, collective, 24, 91, 94 metalwork, 16, 53 56, 58 59, 64, 84, 104, 106, 109 Petrie collection of, Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York), 73, 127 Michael, St., 25 Mid-Century: Good Design in Europe and America, exhibition (Chicago, 2010), middle space, 8 Mitchell, W.J.T. Obama as Icon, 6 Monasterboice, county Louth bog oak carvings of, 101 casts of crosses at, 143 Irish Industrial Arts Exhibition and, Muiredach s Cross at, 50 52, 51, 73, 92, 132 O Neill s landscape of, Tall Cross at, World s Fair and, 92 Metropolitan Museum cast of, 73 World s Fair reproduction of, 92 monasteries, , 105, 119 See also specific monasteries Montmorencey-Morres, Colonel Hervé de An Historical and Critical Inquiry into the Origin and Primitive Uses of the Irish Pillar Tower, 35 Moone Abbey, county Kildare, stone cross, 73 Morris, Henry, 46 Morris, May, 60 Morris, William, 55 56, Muckross abbey (World s Fair reproduction), 88 89, 91 Muiredach s Cross, See Monasterboice, county Louth Murray, Peter, 33, Museum of Miniatures (Indianapolis), 116 musical performances, 89 91, 94 National Gallery of Ireland, 29 nationalism, 12 13, 15 16, 21, 32 33, 38, 60, 144 National Museum of Ireland, 6, 73 high cross reproductions exhibition (2010), native Irish art, native Irish villages (World s Fair recreations), 68 69, 82 94, 86, 93, 99 native materials, 54, 60 Neate, John, 102 Netzer, Nancy, 78 New York Times, 57 Niamh (mythological heroine), Nicholson, Mrs. Asenath, 104 North Cross, See Castledermot, county Kildare ; Clonmacnoise, county Offaly ; Kilklispenn crosses nostalgia, 14, 17, 19, 42, 43, 56, 67 68, 79, 82, 84, 95, 110, 145 Nuada, King of the Tuatha Dé Danann, , 126, 133 Obama, Barack, 6 O Brien, Henry, 35 O Connell, Daniel Petrie monument to, Glasnevin cemetery, O Curry, Eugene, 34 O Donovan, John, 34 ogham script, 49, Oisín (mythical hero), Olmstead, Frederick Law, 80 Ó Murchadha, Dómhnall, 26 Ó Murchú, Giollamuire, 26 O Neill, Henry, 16, 21 22, The Fine Arts and Civilization of Ancient Ireland, 42

21 INDEX 205 Illustrations of the Most Interesting of the Sculptured Crosses of Ancient Ireland, 37 41, 40, 67 Ireland for the Irish, 21, 38 Tara Brooch and, 47, 53 West Side of the North Cross, Kilklipenn, 40 O Neill patterns, 57 oratories, 9 or do inscription, 49 Orlandi, Signor, 143 Other or outsider, 8, 13, 38, 69, 82 84, 96 Otway, Caesar, 36 Overbey, Karen Sacral Geographies, 21 pagan style, 68, 72, 118, 119 Parliament House, World s Fair reproduction, 92 Paterson, Lee, 2 Patrick, St., Paul, St., 25, 29, 98 Pearce, Edward Lovett, 92 Pentland, Marjorie A Bonnie Fechter, 59, 90 Peter, St, 25, 29 Petrie, George, 16, 21 24, 26, 29 44, 67, 79, 143 The Ecclesiastical Architecture of Ireland, 35 Irish Industrial Arts Exhibition and, 70 The Last Circuit of Pilgrims at Conmacnoise (first version), 22 23, 23, 26, 29 31, 37, 41 The Last Circuit of Pilgrims at Conmacnoise (second version), 29 32, 30, 37, 41 O Connell monument, Royal Irish Academy gold medal and, 35 Tara Brooch and, 53 Tuam Market Cross and, picturesque, 2, 20, 22, 29, 31, 38 39, 43, 83, 87, 88, 119 Plunkett, Colonel T., 143 popular audience, 43 44, 47, 79 Postcolonial Middle Ages, The, 8 postcolonial theory, 8, potato blights and famines, 57 58, 69, 88 presentism, 15 Protestant Ascendancy, 32, 48, 52, Psalter, 25 Purser, Sarah, 61 quaintness, 2, 62, 68, 82, 84, 95 queer theory, 2, 11, 13 Raven, Cliff, 137 religious icons, 7 8 Repeal Association, 38 replicas Carroll manuscripts and, Clonmacnoise, 21 defined, 4 5 Dublin and Chicago displays of 2010, gaps between model and, 14 recent reappearance of, 18 Waterhouse jewelery and, World s Fairs and, 66 See also copies and specific artists, items, and replicas reproduction, reconstruction, or representation defined, 4 5 Irish Industrial Arts Exhibition and, 73 Mc Harp Manuscript Letters and, th century revivals and, St. Mary s Protestant Cathedral and, 76 World s Fair and, See also copies and specific artists, items, and reproductions Roe, Helen, 78 Rolston, Bill, 128, 129

22 206 INDEX Roman Catholicism, 70, 75, 108 9, 117, 119 Romanesque buildings, 101 Romans, 8, 50 round towers, 19, 22 24, 30 32, 34 37, 41 43, 75, 88, 92, 119, 145 Royal Dublin Society, 67, 69 Royal Hibernian Academy, 34 Royal Irish Academy, 34 36, 46, 53, 69 70, 80, 87 Royal Ulster Constabulary, 131 ruins, 17, 21, 34, 101, 128 See also specific buildings and localities Ruskin, John, 55, 56 Ryan, Aaron, , 142 Celtic Earth Frenzy (The Táin), 136 Celtic Warrior, , 135 Rydell, Robert All the World s A Fair, 82 saints, 3, 25, 27, 52, See also specific saints Sands, Bobby, 129 Scala, Chris, 142 Celtic Cross Tattoo, , 140 School of Art Needlework, 58 Seaman, Myra, 2, 15 Senchus Mór (law tract), 49 shamrocks, 1, 41, 116, 117, 139 Shannon River, 23, 23, 41 Sheehy, Jeanne, 58, 102 The Rediscovery of an Irish Past, 90 Shrine of Saint Patrick s Bell, 71 World s Fair and, Shrine of St. Manchan of Lemanagh, 73 Sign of the Cross, 108 simulacra, 5, 76, 144 Sinn Féin, 129 social status, 17, 36, 49, 51 52, 51, 65 South Cross, 20 souvenirs, 16, 79, Spanish-American War, 82 Spenser, Edmund, 32 spirals, 10, 45, 54, 59, 64, 68, 71 72, 106, 109, 114, 115, 136, 137 spirituality, 6, 7, 63 64, 100, 101, , 114, , 144, stained glass, 61, 70, 128 St. Brendan s Cathedral at Loughrea, county Galway, Stewart, Susan, 100, 111 On Longing, 19, 67 St. Lawrence Gateway, Drogheda, 87 St. Mary s Protestant Cathedral, Tuam, 76 Stokes, William, 35 stone carvings, 49 50, 64, 73, 106, 109 See also Celtic crosses stones, standing, 49, Studio 311, subaltern studies, 13 supernatural, 47, 128 Táin Bó Cuailnge (The Cattle Raid of Cooley) (epic tale), 136 Tara, hill fort at, Tara Bracelet, 54 Tara Brooch, 3, 14, 45 66, 46, 106 discovery of, 16 17, early replicas of, 16 17, 45, 47 48, 59 Irish Industrial Arts Exhibition and, 66 68, 73, 95 Waterhouse reproductions of, 53 55, 65, 68, 73 World s Fairs and, Tara Pin, 54 tattoos, 16 17, 119, Templemore Parish, 34 Temple of Industry, 68 79, 77, See also Irish Industrial Exhibition textiles, 57 63, 65, 86 thatched cottages Centracchio s Charming Irish Cottage and, World s Fairs and, 82 83, 87, 89 Times (London), 47 Triquetra,

23 INDEX 207 Tolkien, J.R.R. Lord of the Rings, 125 tomb slabs and tombstones Clonmacnoise, 20, 31, 41 Glasnevin, 145 political murals and, tattoos and, , 140 tourism, 21, 37, 99 Tower House, World s Fairs and, 87, 89 Traditio Clavium, 25, 29 transtemporality, See intertemporality Trinity College, Dublin, 78, 80 county Galway, Market Cross, 37 38, 72 78, 74 Tuan (narrator of Book of Conquests ), 124, 128 Tuatha Dé Danann (Tribes of the Goddess Danu), , 129 Tyrconnell patterns, 57 Ulster loyalist murals, republican murals, 121, United Kingdom, 22, 68 69, 79 Utz, Richard, 15 Viceregal Ball (1907), 59 Victoria, Queen of England, 16 17, 54, 67 69, 78, 102 Victoria and Albert Museum (London), 73 Victorians, 14, 52, 58, Walker s Celtic Jewelry, Waterhouse, George, 53 56, 58 59, 63, 65, 102, 104 Tara Brooch replicas, 68, 73 West & Son, 58 Wharton, Annabel, 4 6, 14, 84, 99 Wheeler, H.A., 45 Whitfield, Niamh The Finding of the Tara Brooch, Wilde, Sir William, Wild Eagle Studio, 134, 137 William III, King of England, 129 Williams, Raymond, 6 wool, 50, 57, 59, 60, 91 Workman, Leslie J., 15 World s Fair (Louisiana Purchase Exposition, St. Louis, 1904), 17, 66, 79 81, Irish Industrial Exhibition at, 92 94, 93 Irish villages at, 68 69, 84 85, 91 92, 95 96, 99 Pike, 82, 91 94, 96 World s Fair (World Exposition, Aichi, Japan, 2005) high-cross casts at, World s Fair (World s Columbian Exposition, Chicago, 1893), 17, 66, 79 83, 85, 88, Great Britain building, 89 Irish Industrial Show, Irish villages at, 68 69, 84 91,86, 95, 99 Midway, 80 82, 85, 90, 96 Wright, Frank Lloyd Dining Table and Six Chairs, 144 Yeats, Elizabeth, 60 Yeats, Jack B., 61 Yeats, Lily, 60, 61 Yeats, Mary Cottenham, 61 Yeats, W.B., 60 Celtic Twilight, 22, 33 Young, Susan The Work of Angels, 47