The Porolissum Forum Project

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2 Eric De Sena The Porolissum Forum Project 2006 Handbook

3 Copyright MMVI ARACNE editrice S.r.l. via Raffaele Garofalo, 133 A/B Roma (06) ISBN I diritti di traduzione, di memorizzazione elettronica, di riproduzione e di adattamento anche parziale, con qualsiasi mezzo, sono riservati per tutti i Paesi. Non sono assolutamente consentite le fotocopie senza il permesso scritto dell Editore. I edizione: giugno 2006

4 BUN VENIT! The second season of the Porolissum Forum Project will be conducted June 30 to July 30, 2006 by an international team of researchers and students. The primary objective of this joint Romanian-American campaign is to explore the Forum of Porolissum, a Roman city located in northwestern Transylvania.This is one of a growing number of archaeological projects in Eastern Europe involving team members from the host nation as well as the West.This a particularly important year, since 2006 marks the 1900th anniversary of Trajan s victory in Dacia and the foundation of Porolissum. This handbook provides an overview of the Porolissum Forum Project. The first two sections address the history and archaeology of Dacia and, more specifically, the city of Porolissum.This is followed by a description of our goals and the results of the 2004 pilot season.the final section presents information on archaeological methods, the analysis of architectural features and the study of archaeological materials.two appendices concern the Roman army and the study of ancient ceramics. The Project Leaders are extremely grateful to the following individuals for their support and advice: Prof. Eric Apfelstadt (Director, Loyola University Chicago s John Felice Rome Center), Prof. Nicolae Gudea (University of Cluj- Napoca), Prof. Susan Kane (Oberlin College), Prof. Lester Little (former Director, American Academy in Rome), Dr. Archer Martin (Archaeology Supervisor, AAR), Fausta McDermott, Esq. (McDermott and McDermott Attorneys at Law), Prof. Franco Pavoncello (Provost and Acting President, John Cabot University), Prof. J.Theodore Peña (SUNY, University at Buffalo), Prof. Portia Prebys (Director, Saint Mary s College Rome Program), Prof. Patricia Read-Hunter (Dean of Academic Affairs, JCU), Elena Musca (Director, Zalău Museum of History and Art) and Mark S.Tauber (Cultural Affairs Officer, U.S. Embassy to Romania).

5 COHORS II P F P PROJECT DIRECTORS: Dr. Alexandru V. Matei Dr. Eric C. De Sena Senior Archaeologist, Zalău Museum of Art and History Adjunct Assistant Professor of Classical Studies John Cabot University, Loyola University Chicago, and Saint Mary s College G.I.S. CONSULTANT: Dr. Robert V. Chavez Tufts University ARCHAEOLOGY ASSISTANTS: Daniel Moore Paul Pupeza Gregory Tucker Daniel Weiss Robert Wanner University of North Carolina University of Cluj-Napoca Babes-Bolyoi University of Florida University of Virginia Tufts University FIELD SCHOOL PARTICIPANTS: Rawdon Bergquist Emanuela Bocancea Xose Luis Hermoso Buxan Diana Ciornei Jaime da Costa Geoffrey Haymes Margaret Hunt Catherine Jackson Danielle Jahn Sarah Johnson Meghan McCandless Chuck Norris Lee Norris Cathleen O Very Michael Wolff Carleton College University of Alberta University of Birmingham Vanderbilt University Kennesaw State University University of Colorado University of Colorado University of Montana University of Florida Smith College Saint Mary s College Carnegie Institute of Technology; Peace Corps volunteer University of Maine; Peace Corps volunteer Loyola University Chicago Loyola University Chicago

6 OUTLINE I. A Brief History of Dacia 11 II. The History and Archaeology of Porolissum 17 III. The Objectives of the Porolissum Forum Project 21 The Forum 22 Porolissum in its natural and cultural context 22 Ethnoarchaeological research 23 East meets West 24 IV. Archaeological Field Methods 26 Excavation 27 Architectural remains 31 Written and graphic documentation 36 Artifacts and Ecofacts 39 V. Results of the 2004 Field Season 57 Appendix 1 The Roman army 64 Appendix 2 The study of Roman pottery 67 Bibliography 74 Please visit the Porolissum Forum Project website: 9

7 I. A BRIEF HISTORY OF DACIA Dacia can be defined geographically as the territory comprising modern-day Romania. Human beings have populated the region of Dacia for tens of thousands of years, although the first significant cultural remains date to ca BC.The third and second millennia BC are characterized by small settlements consisting of oblong huts or houses constructed of perishable material (wood, thatch, clay).most sites are located along river valleys in southern and eastern Romania. Nearly all artifacts are of a funerary or religious nature and include terracotta and stone figurines, painted pottery and, later, metal objects jewelry, weapons, ingots.the best preserved Neolithic settlement is Hăbăşest i in the region of Dobrigea (near the Black Sea). Fig. 1. Map of Romania 11

8 Major socio-political changes occurred around 1200 BC. The ensuing period (ca BC) is characterized by larger and wealthier settlements, greater social stratification and the introduction of new types of artifacts and artistic motifs.this phase is often referred to as the Hallstatt period which designates a group of Celtic tribes whose influence spread over much of central Europe at this time. The later Hallstatt period witnessed the arrival of Greek colonists who established ports along the Black Sea, including Histria,Tomis and Callatis. No foreign cultures extended inland until the late 6th century when the Persian king Darius campaigned in the Danube River valley. Around 500 BC another significant shift in socio-political organization occurred.the La Tène period (ca. 500 BC-AD 101/06) is named after a more evolved stage of Celtic culture. Fig. 2. Map of Romania Dacia (Source: P. MacKendrick 1975: 106, fig. 5.1) 12

While the reasons for this change are still subject to scholarly debate, the reality involved independent tribes, which formed political-military alliances when foreign cultures attempted to encroach

9 While the reasons for this change are still subject to scholarly debate, the reality involved independent tribes, which formed political-military alliances when foreign cultures attempted to encroach into Geto-Dacian territory. Each tribe was based in a particular settlement and controlled the small surrounding territory. It appears that Sarmizegethusa, in western Romania near Deva and Alba Iulia, served as the principal political-religious center where tribal leaders met on occasion. Fig. 3. Column of Traian 13

This form of political organization, which might be likened to that of contemporary Italic cultures (e.g. Etruscans, Samnites), was successful throughout the Hellenistic period.

10 This form of political organization, which might be likened to that of contemporary Italic cultures (e.g. Etruscans, Samnites), was successful throughout the Hellenistic period. The Geto-Dacians were even victorious over Alexander the Great, who crossed the Danube but was soon forced back to the southern bank of the river. In the mid 1st century BC, Geto-Dacian tribes were united under a single leader, Burebista. Burebista conquered some of Dacia s neighbors and was viewed as a threat to Rome, whose territory at this time extended to Macedonia and Asia Minor (Asia, Bithynia and Pontus). Julius Caesar planned to march on Dacia, but both he and Burebista were assassinated in 44 BC. Augustus believed that the Dacians would pose no threat to the Roman Empire. This emperor was mistaken and was forced to send Roman troops to the Black Sea region under the generals C. Cornelius Lentulus and S. Aelius Catus. In the course of the 1st century AD, independent Dacian Fig. 4. Map of the Roman Empire in the 2 nd and 3 rd centuries AD 14

11 tribes, whose union had dissolved with the death of Burebista, raided areas of Roman-controlled Moesia and Thrace. The Dacians were united once again around AD 87 by a great military leader, Decebalus, who consolidated Dacian territory and continued to attack areas to the south of the Danube. Decebalus was at first successful against the Romans, defeating the military forces of the emperor Domitian. In the early 2nd century, however, Decebalus met his match. Between AD 101 and 106,Trajan led two victorious military campaigns with as many as 100,000 soldiers. Colonia Ulpia Traiana (formerly Sarmizegethusa) was named the capital city of Roman Dacia, while other major cities/military centers were Drobeta, Tibiscum, Apulum, Napoca and Porolissum.With the reorganization of the Roman provinces in AD 124 under Hadrian, Dacia was divided into three provinces: Dacia Inferior, Dacia Superior and Dacia Porolissensis. An area to the north and west that the Romans did not annex was known as Free Dacia. The degree of Romanization was extensive and began with the settling of Roman soldiers, merchants, miners, craftsmen and farmers throughout Dacia. Initially, many Dacians were forced into slavery or brutalized by the Romans; some Dacians fled into Free Dacia or committed suicide. But many Dacians eventually adopted Roman ways. When not engaged in military skirmishes or policing, Roman soldiers constructed roads, bridges and aqueducts, as well as public buildings, such as temples. After a generation or two Romans and native Dacians enjoyed a relatively peaceful coexistence. What had been established as Roman military outposts developed into towns and cities. In addition to private activities, such as farming or trade, Dacians were soon allowed to hold important military and administrative posts. In AD 212 the emperor Caracalla extended citizenship to all free-born people living within the Roman Empire. As a result of increasing threats of nomadic tribes from the northeast, the emperor Aurelian decided to withdraw Roman administration from Dacia in AD 271. Many deep-rooted Romans chose to remain in Dacia and there is strong archaeological evidence that the inhabitants of the former Roman pry these invasions were the southern and coastal areas of Dacia, 15

12 while the territory of modern day Transylvania, protected by the Carpathian Mountains, was largely untouched. * See P. MacKendrick s book (1975) for a detailed discussion of ancient Dacia 16

SARMIZEGETUSA ULPIA TRAIANA CAPITAL OF THE DACIAN PROVINCES

SARMIZEGETUSA ULPIA TRAIANA CAPITAL OF THE DACIAN PROVINCES ROMAM IMPERIAL URBAN EXCAVATION TRANSYLVANIA, ROMANIA July 5 August 8, 2015 aria sacra extra muros FOR MORE INFORMATION: www.archaeotek-archaeology.org