The Everyday Chipped Stone Technologies. Irish Bronze Age:

Size: px
Start display at page:

Download "The Everyday Chipped Stone Technologies. Irish Bronze Age:"

Transcription

1 The Everyday Chipped Stone Technologies of the Irish Bronze Age: A Broader Regional Perspective By Maria O' Hare Proof copy 2013

2 Table of Contents Summary Introduction - Metal vs. Stone Chapter One - Methodology Chapter Two Chronological presentation of directly analysed and indirect assessment of domestic technology throughout the earlier metal era (c BC) Chapter Three Chronological presentation of directly analysed and indirect assessment of domestic technology throughout the later metal era (c /600 BC) Chapter Four Review of lithic technology Primary & Secondary categories combined and the persistence of everday tools throughout the Bronze Age Chapter Five The impact of metallurg upon Domestic Lithic Technology: A Broader Regional Perspective Conclusion - Stone vs. Metal Bibliography ii

3 List of Illustrations Figure 1: Distribution of Irish Bronze Age lithic technology from the Beaker period to the end of the Vase Tradition c BC (Earlier metal era = EME) left compared with lithic technology from sites relating to the post-vase Tradition inclusive of Middle and Late Bronze Age sites c BC (Developed Bronze Age = DBA) right Figure 2: Bar chart representing frequency of lithic quantities according to earlier and later phases of the Bronze Age Figure 3: Bar chart representing frequency of lithics by context type according to the broad Bronze Age division...32 Figure 4; Pie chart representing percentages of contexts for lithics within each phase of the Bronze Age including general Bronze Age contexts Figure 5: Stages of knapping strategy via bipolar reduction suggested by the cores recovered from a Bronze Age settlement in Sweden (Knarrström 2001, fig. 51) Figure 6: A range of bipolar on-anvil chert flakes and cores, some refitted, showing 90 impacts from Turtle Rock, Australia (right) (after Knight 1991, fig Figure 7: Bipolar reduction strategy and suggested production of segments as cutting tools as presented by Knarrström (2001, fig.95) Figure 8: Bipolar flake pieces exhibiting polish from use (after Knarrström 2001, fig. 100) Figure 9: Chert bipolar core from Farmstead 1, Roughan Hill, Co. Clare dating to the Beaker/Early Bronze Age period...44 Figure 10: Pie chart showing Primary technology components from Farmstead 1, Roughan Hill, Co. Clare Figure 11: Pie chart showing Primary technology components from Farmstead 2, Roughan Hill, Co. Clare Figure 12: Bar chart showing dimensions for combined bipolar pieces from the Farmsteads at Roughan Hill, Co. Clare...48 Figure 13: Pie chart showing Secondary technology components from Farmstead 1, Roughan Hill, Co. Clare dating to the Beaker/Early Bronze Age period Figure 14: A detail of good quality chert sub-circular scraper from Roughan Hill, Farmstead 1 Co. Clare iii

4 Figure 15: Drawing of a selection of chert sub-circular (thumbnail) scrapers from Roughan Hill, Farmstead 1, Co. Clare Figure 16: Farmstead 1, Roughan Hill, Co. Clare, pointed tools made of chert with visible polish on the pointed ends Figure 17: Pointed bipolar core after several reduction episodes from Farmstead 1, Roughan Hill, Co. Clare. An awl type tool Figure 18: One of two chert hollow based arrowheads from the Beaker farmstead settlement 1 Roughan Hill, Co. Clare (No. 95E061, 156 courtesy of Jones University of Galway) Figure 19: Possible roughout distal portion of a stone axe made of mudstone found unstratified within Farmstead 1 at Roughan Hill, Co. Clare (top and bottom right). A polished stone axe with missing distal portion found in Midden at Roughan Hill, Farmstead 1, Co. Clare Figure 20: Pie chart showing Secondary technology components from Farmstead 2, Roughan Hill, Co. Clare Figure 21: Pie chart showing Primary technology components from Leedaun 1, Co. Mayo...55 Figure 22: Bar chart showing the dimensional frequency of bipolar pieces from the Leedaun, I, Co. Mayo...56 Figure 23: Pie chart showing Secondary technology components from Leedaun I, Co. Mayo Figure 24: Vase Tradition chert sub-circular (thumbnail) chert scrapers from the Midden site at Ballyconneely (False Bay DL1, Co. Galway) Figure 25: Ballyconneely (DL1 False Bay) Co. Galway chert hollow based arrowhead Figure 26: Beaker flint sub-circular scrapers from Ross Island, Co. Kerry (after Crone courtesy of the Ulster Museum, Belfast)...62 Figure 27: Flint hollow based arrowhead from Ross Island, Co. Kerry (No. 92E0081: 330) (after Crone courtesy of the Ulster Museum, Belfast).....,.62 Figure 28: Barbed and tanged with broken tang classified as Green Low by Dillon (1997, 251) from Beaker concentration [E] (after Dillon 1997 fig. 54, 8472)...65 Figure 29: Timbers from Corlea 6 with stone blade cuts (above) and timbers cut using metal blades (below) (after O Sullivan 1996, figs. 409 and 433) Figure 30: Pie chart showing Primary technology components within Leedaun II, Co. Mayo...82 Figure 31: Bar chart showing dimensions for bipolar pieces from Leedaun II, Co. Mayo...83 Figure 32: Pie chart showing Secondary technology components from Leedaun II, Co. Mayo...84 iv

5 Figure 33: Portion of a polished stone axe from Leedaun Area II, Co. Mayo Figure 34: Pie chart showing Primary technology components from Corrstown, Co. Derry Figure 35: Bar chart showing dimensions for bipolar pieces from Corrstown, Co. Derry Figure 36: Range of flint bipolar-on-anvil flakes and cores, which would have been suitable for use without further modification for boring, scraping and cutting tasks from Corrstown, Co. D Figure 37: Pie chart showing Secondary technology components from Corrstown, Co. Derry Figure 38: (MBA) flint scrapers: rough well-flaked scraper (top left); crude cortical scraper (top right); neat sub-circular scraper (below) from Corrstown, Co. Derry Figure 39: Pie chart showing Primary technology components from Ballyarnet, Co. Derry Figure 40: Selection of a diverse range of lithic pieces recovered from Ballyarnet, Co. Derr Figure 41: Pie chart showing Primary technology components from Lugg, Co. Dublin Figure 42: Bar chart showing dimensions for bipolar pieces from Lugg, Co. Dublin Figure 43: Pie Chart showing Secondary technology components from Lugg, Co. Dublin Figure 44: Pie Chart showing Primary lithic components from Haughey s Fort, Co. Armagh Figure 45: Typical flint (patinated) bipolar pointed core from Haughey s Fort, Co Armagh..., Figure 46: Random selection of a range of flint bipolar (mainly pointed) cores and bipolar flakes from Haughey s Fort, Co Armagh Figure 47: Bar chart showing dimensions for bipolar pieces from Haughey s Fort, Co Armagh...., Figure 48: Bar chart showing Secondary technology components from Haughey s Fort, Co. Armagh Figure 49: Late Bronze Age flint scrapers: (top two) neat sub-circular scrapers, (second from top) fairly crude scraper,(bottom) neat sub-circular scraper from Haughey s Fort, Co. Armagh..., Figure 50: A bipolar flake from the Late Bronze Age hillfort at *Haughey s Fort, Co Armagh Figure 51: Selection of pointed flint bipolar cores/flakes that would have been perfectly suitable to cutting, boring and piercing task from Haughey s Fort, Co Armagh Figure 52: Selection of primary technology from Rathgall, Co. Wicklow. Split pebble (top left); quartered pebble/bipolar core (top right); bipolar flake (bottom) Figure 53: Pie chart showing Primary technology components from Rathgall, Co. Wicklow.....,,109 Figure 54: Bar chart showing dimensions for bipolar pieces from Rathgall, Co. Wicklow Figure 55: Pie chart showing Secondary technology components from Rathgall, Co. Wicklow Figure 56: Fairly neat sub-circular flint scraper from Rathgall, Co. Wicklow..., v

6 Figure 57: A finely produced platform blade possibly dating to the Neolithic period, which was unstratified within the Rathgall. Co. Wicklow site; although potentially employed within the Later Bronze Age period as a tool..., Figure 58: Large flint scrapers from Killymoon, Co. Tyrone. Retouched ad hoc scraper (top and another crude scraper without retouch with scalloped edges forming scraping edge (below)...,,,,,..,., Figure 59: Selection of large flint ad hoc scrapers from Killymoon, Co. Tyrone Figure 60: Range of significantly earlier lithic type-fossils found associated with typical Bronze Age lithics from Killymoon, Co. Tyrone Figure 61: Extrapolated hollow based arrowhead from Killymoon, Co. Tyrone...,.,.,115 Figure 62: Three polished stone axes from Killymoon, Co. Tyrone Figure 63: Pie Chart showing Primary technology components from Ballyutoag, Co. Antrim Figure 64: Bar chart showing dimensions for bipolar pieces from Ballyutoag, Co. Antrim Figure 65: Pie chart showing Secondary technology components from Ballyutoag, Co. Antrim Figure 66: Quartered flint nodule creating a bipolar pointed core (top) and more splintered pointed bipolar pieces with sharp point (below) from an upland settlement dating to the Late Bronze Age with underlying possible EBA features from Ballyutoag, Co. Antrim Figure 67: Sub-circular flint scraper retaining cortex (outer chalk layer) of pebble type flint from Ballyutoag, Co. Antrim Figure 68: Broken hollow based flint arrowhead from Ballyutoag, Co. Antrim Figure 69: Pie chart showing Primary technology components from Freestone Hill, Co. Kilkenny Figure 70: Bar chart showing dimensions for bipolar pieces from Freestone Hill, Co. Kilkenny Figure 71: Pie chart showing Secondary technology components from Freestone Hill, Co. Kilkenny Figure 72: Pie chart showing Primary technology components from Lough Eskragh, Co. Tyrone..., Figure 73: Bar chart showing dimensions for bipolar pieces from Lough Eskragh assemblage, Co. Tyrone..., Figure 74: Pie chart showing Secondary technology components from Lough Eskragh, Co. Tyrone , Figure 75: Broken porcellanite polished stone axe (1) from Meadowlands, Co. Down, (after Pollock and Waterman 1964, fig.13,1) Figure 76: Cordoned Urn Tradition (MBA) sub-circular flint scrapers from Meadowlands, Co. Down, (after Pollock and Waterman 1964, fig.13, 3 & 4)...,,...,,,,,,,,,, vi

7 Figure 77: A Sutton type C, barbed and tanged arrowhead (no. 228) associated with a Cordoned Urn sherd (no. 214) from Moynagh Lough, Co. Meath, (after Bradley 1991, fig. 4, no. 228)...,,, Figure 78: Pie charts showing proportions of combined tools compared to the combined primary technology from Beaker and Early Bronze Age assemblages mainly obtained from directly analysed assemblages augmented by extrapolation of existing lithic reports. Tool dominated assemblages not included Figure 79: Pie charts showing proportions of combined tools compared to the combined primary technology from either Middle Bronze Age sites and/or mid to Late Bronze Age sites mainly obtained from directly analysed assemblages augmented by extrapolation of existing lithic reports. Tool dominated assemblages not included...,,,,,, Figure 80: Pie charts showing proportions of combined tools compared to the combined primary technology from specifically dated Late Bronze Age sites mainly obtained from directly analysed assemblages augmented by extrapolation of existing lithic reports. Tool dominated assemblages not included Figure 81: Schematic showing diverse role of stone during the Neolithic Figure 82: Schematic showing Bronze Age domestic role of stone Figure 83: Proposed schematic of the entirely distinct spheres of metalworking and chipped stone technology throughout the Irish Bronze Age based upon the relative complexity/accessibility of one material over another vii

8 List of Tables Table 1: Relative chronology developed to assess lithic technology throughout the first age of metallurgy in Ireland Table 2: Primary technology categories identified within analysed assemblages dating from the earliest until the latest phases of the Bronze Age. Tool dominated assemblages not inc Table 3 Secondary technology proportions within analysed assemblages ranging from the Beaker to the Dowris period Table 4: Conservative percentages of scraper populations and their lithic material calculated against total assemblages size >100 lithic pieces. The earlier assemblages (below) later assemblages (above) indicating that there is no decline detected through time viii

9 ix

10 Summary The main focus of this present publication is to explore the overall characteristics and continued functionality of household lithic technology throughout the Irish Bronze Age (c /600 BC), in relation to metalworking traditions. This study will also review and discuss the results in the contexts of similar research which has emerged more recently from a broad range of other regions. The topic of chipped stone technology, as employed within the first age of metallurgy, was prompted in the first place, due to the lack of research of this topic in Ireland. Other regions also lack this type of research. The shortfall in our understanding of the Irish Bronze Age chipped stone technologies was finally addressed in a doctoral study undertaken by the present writer (completed in 2005). During and after the completion of the doctoral research, it became apparent that the main characteristics of lithic collections, particularly relating to domestic contexts in Ireland, seem to mirror those, as alluded to by Healy (2000) where she highlights the surprising similarity of later prehistoric use of lithic material dating to the later prehistoric/metal era from several Continental regions ranging from Poland to Scandinavia, the Near Eastern areas such as: the Levant and Jordan as well as Britain (ibid). The further investigation of Healy s recognition of such a widespread phenomenon led directly to this current publication, which will present the main patterns of lithic use and its continued functionality within domestic/secular contexts from the earliest until the latest phases of the Irish Bronze Age. This draws upon the main data established within the original doctoral study, which has been amended and updated for the purposes of aligning this research with that from other regions. Although, these studies are not numerous, they are suffice to expand upon Healy s original (2000) observations regarding the widespread similarity of later prehistoric lithic industries of the metal era, and to attempt to understand what the relationship of domestic lithic technology was to the contemporaneous metal industries. 10

11 Furthermore, the integration of other studies into the Irish research, has helped to explain some of the mechanisms why and how the chipped stone technologies came to survive and function, albeit in a typically much degenerated form, throughout the entire Bronze Age period, where it could be established within their respective regions. Furthermore, this degeneration of the lithics industries seems to only occur within domestic/secular contexts, as running concurrently with these industries is a very different phenomena occurring in lithic technology within non-secular contexts. In other words: not all aspects of lithic technologies of the metal era are informally produced. In fact, the findings from the earlier doctoral study of Irish Bronze Age lithic industries show that there were two main technologies discernible: one being individual artefacts, frequently associated with funerary, hoard and ritual contexts, which were typically well crafted stone objects and their period of association turned out to correspond to the period c BC, indicative of a late renaissance at the height of the Irish Bronze Age. The other technology is entirely different and represents the bulk of lithics assessed within the doctoral study. These are essentially ad hoc, expedient, locally sourced and were derived predominantly from within domestic settlements. These two technologies tell very different stories regarding the role of lithic technology in relation to the contemporaneous metalworking industries of the time. These diverging stone technologies has been the subject of Högberg s (2004 and 2009) studies with reference to Late Bronze Age and Iron Age lithic technologies employed within parts of Scandinavian. This divergence of the stone industries could be described as a type of polarisation, or a widening gap as observed by Healy (2004, 184) in relation to this common phenomenon of distinct lithic technologies identified within a number of regions dating to the later prehistoric metal era. The more specialised stone technologies could be said to be, en-par with the metal technologies as suggested by Healy (ibid), while, the domestic chipped stone technology seems entirely removed from the contemporaneous metal industries of the day, which is strongly indicated by the results of the earlier doctoral research by the present writer and will form part of the discussion within this present study. Although the broader issues of all aspects of the lithic industries within the Bronze Age in Ireland are important, and it is hoped that the more crafted 11

12 technologies will be the specific topic of a future publication, it is the nature and continued functionality in relation to contemporaneous metalworking traditions, and the ultimate role that household lithic technologies played within and throughout the Bronze Age period that is now the particular focus of this current investigation. 12

13 Introduction: Metal vs. Stone Healy describes the lithic industries of the metal using era from Poland to Scandinavia and from the Southern Jordan to Britain as: almost universal expedient industries made on locally available materials (2004, 184). The Irish domestic industries of the Bronze Age find many parallels with those industries indicated by Healy (2000) and have further explored this line of investigation to add several others to this ever expanding corpus of research. Within Ireland, the results from the doctoral study clearly indicated fully functioning domestic stone technologies and equally expedient to those established for domestic contexts from many other regions as identified within the available literature dealing with chipped stone technology throughout and within various phases of the first age of metallurgy. The mainstay technology beyond the typical array of scrapers, the occasional stone arrowhead and/or polished stone axe was that of fairly ad hoc and opportunistic pieces employed as perfectly functional cutting, sawing and piercing tools. The nature of the Irish and indeed, many of the lithic industries found dating to the metal era is that it is typically quite distinct from the lithic technology employed within earlier contexts. This therefore, has caused a number of problems regarding our traditional classification/recording/analysis systems which we typically apply to lithic technology of the prehistoric periods and this in turn has caused much of the Bronze Age associated lithics misunderstood and become quite invisible within the archaeological record. This has often resulted in bolstering the idea that once metal was introduced: this sounded the death knell for the traditional lithic industries. This is actually not the case and it is hoped that this present study will address some of our misconceptions regarding the fate of one industry over another. However, several mechanisms are offered within this publication which will hopefully help to explain how and why these industries remained entirely remote from the contemporaneous metal industries and indeed, how and why the metal industries never appear to play a significant role, if any, within the domestic industries of the day. As noted in the summary, historically in Ireland, the amount of attention given to lithic technology within the Bronze Age has been quite sparse, although a few attempts have been made without much success, such as Woodman and Scannell s 13

14 (1993) study in the southwest of Ireland. Although most scholars working in this field of study have acknowledged the difficulties involved in dealing with such material, they also highlight the paucity of research and importance of such a topic. For instance, the crudity of many of these later prehistoric industries may also have contributed somewhat to the neglect of this line of research. These issues have been highlighted by most of the handful of scholars who have addressed in their research the nature of lithic technology within the metal era (Ford et al 1984; Edmonds 1995; Knarrström 2001; Humphrey and Young 2003 and Högberg 2004). The crude nature of the lithic material of the Bronze Age period has presumably also inhibited its study as it is not the most illustrious of pursuits. Flint from the Bronze Age and Iron Age is not an appealing material. Elusive and apparently without structure, it captures the interest of few (Högberg 2004, 229). It also looks like the recognition of functional industries of the developed metal era is further bolstered by our presumption that these industries would have been automatically replaced by metal forms once suitable tools of metal became available. This has been highlighted by other scholars such as Rosen and described as a presumed linear rise and fall pattern of one material over another (1996), and a taken-for-granted assumption that many endorse but few have examined as noted by Högberg (2009, 267). However, irrespective of how crude this material may be: it still requires our understanding as concluded by Ford et al (1984) conclude in their seminal study dealing with lithic technology of the metal era within Britain: If this rather unpleasant material cannot win our affection, it still needs our understanding (Ford et al 1984, 167). Continued functionality of Bronze Age lithic industries a historical perspective: Ford et al (1984) attempted to track the changes in assemblage variability from the later Neolithic until the later Bronze Age by assessing the mean number of toolclass types throughout this time-frame. And although they identified a drastic decline between the non-metal and metal using era, suggesting that this may result from the increasing production of bronze tools (1984, 167, table 3), they also note that this explanation could not account for adequately for all the tool classes or 14

15 indeed, other aspects of the flint industry which they investigated. For instance, they found that they had found abundant industries, particularly during the later stages of the Bronze Age and remark upon its remarkable crudity (1984, 167). Just over a decade after Ford et al s seminal paper, another British study was published by Edmonds (1995) where, he details the socio-economic aspects of later prehistoric flint-working. Edmonds research encompasses much of the Bronze Age period. His evaluations go some way to begin understanding the remarkably crude, but seemingly functional later prehistoric material that Ford et al highlight in their research. Beyond these British studies and a few observations by Runnels (1982) and Torrence (1979) highlighting aspects of functional stone industries within sites corresponding to the metal era of the historic and prehistoric period within Greece respectively, it is only in more recent years, particularly during the turn of the new millennium, that several researchers from a wide range of other regions began to demonstrate long surviving, and again: fairly crude, lithic technologies dating to the later prehistoric metal era. However, not everyone would agree that lithic technology (functional) survives beyond the Middle Bronze Age. For example, Humphrey and Young point out that the Middle Bronze Age is the last chronological period in British prehistory when most researchers feel comfortable with the idea of regular flint utilisation (2003, 83-4). This is resistance is clearly seen within studies by Saville (1981) and more recently by Butler (2005 and 2006). Edmonds highlights this assumption in the following statement: For the most part, archaeologists have tended to assume that the disappearance of many formal stone tools in the Middle Bronze Age is a reflection of the spread of metal. Unlike the Early Bronze Age, later metalwork assemblages contain a wider variety of artefacts, many of which would have been suitable for a number of practical tasks (Edmonds 1995, 187). Butler holds to this view as he points out that: The quantity of metalwork circulating during the middle and late Bronze Age had greatly increased, and there was a wider range of metal tools that were available to replace the existing flint and 15

16 stone tools (2005, 179). Cooney suggests a similar replacement of the Irish industries towards the latter phases of the Bronze Age as the cause of the final collapse of the lithic industries (1999, ). It should be noted however, that within Ford et al s (1984) pioneering study, Later Bronze Age lithic material is noted. They indicate that although this was fairly crude, that they did not rule out as functional, but rather suggested it required more understanding (1984, 167). Furthermore, they offer a very important observation regarding this same material in the fact that they recognise that some of the lack of formal flint pieces at these later sites and the correspondingly crude material might indicate that formal tools were off-set to some extent by less formal types (Ibid). Although Edmonds does not specifically deal with post-middle Bronze Age lithic technology within British sites, he does offer clues to the continued functionality within Middle Bronze Age contexts that might suggest a continuation into the Late Bronze Age period within Britain in the following description of activity around an old flint mine during the Middle Bronze Age period in Britain: Many of the most basic tools and unmodified flakes that were made and used at this time would have been well suited to most of the activities that characterised life in and around contemporary settlements (Edmonds 1995, 187). Mc Claren has recently highlighted the range of site from southeast Britain dating to the Late Bronze Age and extending into the Early Iron Age which shows a range of lithic tools and debitage that have simply become thoroughly informal (2011). Other British studies dealing with Iron Age domestic lithic technology by Young and Humphrey (1999); Humphrey and Young (2003) and Humphrey (2004), a continued importance of stone technology is proposed, where Humphrey stresses the continued functionality of domestically produced ad hoc lithic technologies in the later prehistoric period and concludes that although these items have become less recognisable, they also remain entirely functional and utilitarian (2004, ). A similar longevity of functional lithic tools has also been identified within Scandinavian industries within a major study by Knarrström (2001) who has assessed the lithic technologies within later prehistoric collections by employing research tools such as: use/micro-wear analysis. Knarrström has convincingly 16

17 demonstrated the continued survival of functional, albeit crude, tools throughout the Bronze Age and beyond and states: Many of the metal age flints have been modified and may, both unmodified and modified, display microscopic traces of use (Knarrström 2001, 140) and demonstrates that flint tools continued to function well beyond the period after the introduction of bronze or iron (Knarrström 2001, 9). Similarly, Högberg s assessment of the Late Bronze Age household technologies also within the Scandinavian region found that: the unmodified flake is usually not regarded as a tool as these are traditionally classified as waste from the manufacturing process and if only formal tools are recorded: then these typically account for a fairly miniscule proportion of assemblages (2009, 234). Indeed, these simple ad hoc household technologies has been highlighted by Högberg with reference to technologies described from fairly late contexts from other parts of Scandinavia, the Netherlands, Germany and France and specifically highlights the commonality as seen within the British later prehistoric material described by Humphreys in her two-thousand and four publication (2009). Another example of ad hoc industries relating to the Late Bronze Age period can be seen in Migal s (2004) overview lithic study of the Central/Eastern European industries with particular reference to Poland. Migal outlines the domestic use of flint within this region which has been established as spanning the full extent of the Bronze Age, although the earlier technologies were much more standardised, by the later period, and notes a marked increase towards simple-flaked industries and poor flintworking and an increase in the use and exploitation of existing flint mines in some regions during the Late Bronze Age period (2004). Essentially, in the few studies which have examined closely the nature of lithic use beyond the Bronze Age period, these have also been shown to continue functionally within the domestic sphere. For example, although fairly atypical and standardised technology compared to most other later prehistoric domestic industries noted thus far, the evidence recovered by Hartenberger and Runnels (2001) in their detailed assessment of the Lerna site in Greece, can also be added to this expanding corpus of evidence for the long surviving domestic industries of the Bronze Age. 17

18 It was long an axiom of archaeology that flintnapping and stone-tool use gradually faded away when bronze tools and edged weapons were added to the material culture of the Aegean world after the end of the Neolithic, but the nearly 12,000 lithics from Bronze Age Lerna demonstrate clearly the continuing importance of stone tools in this period (Hartenberger and Runnels 2001, 280). It is also worth noting the fairly late survival of stone tools is also noted within other parts of the world beyond Europe, such as strata observed by Rosen within Egyptian and other Near/Middle Eastern regions: The fact that metallurgy and chipped stone technology overlap for more than three millennia is sufficient reason to re-examine the assumed roles of metal tools in ancient societies. The claim, in hindsight, of superiority of early metallurgy over flint tools is simply untenable, and the long process of metal-stone replacement is neither obvious, preordained, nor simple (1997, 11-12). Interestingly, within the Levant region, in-depth studies were carried out by Rosen (1996; 1997) who highlights the presence of fairly ad hoc technologies, like many of the other later prehistoric assemblages, including the Irish material. Rosen s research within the Levant, extends well into the Bronze Age and beyond and has shown a continuation of these same ad hoc industries, although he was unable to identify at what point these industries ceased to function due to stratigraphic issues, he does suggest a decline sometime between the end of the Early Bronze Age and before the Iron Age period for these industries within the Levant region ( my italics). It seems that where studies are available that has dealt with the nature and functionality of lithic industries of the metal era, and has been able to specifically assess post-middle Bronze Age industries, that there is clear evidence of continued functionality. This ties in well with the findings from the Irish study. This evidence strongly indicates household lithic technologies continue unimpeded and remain entirely functional irrespective of the availability or, suitability of circulating metal replacements. Therefore, as most of these industries are at the same time quite crude (leaving aside the fully-functioning Late Bronze Age industries and atypical standardised 18

19 technologies established within the Lerna settlement in Greece as outlined by Hartenberger and Runnels (2001), and are actually quite expedient, perhaps then it is the crudity of this later prehistoric industries, that is blurring the recognition of continued functionality of later prehistoric industries, rather than the lack of evidence. Causes & mechanisms to explain the nature & continued importance of lithics in the metal-era The complexity of metal vs. stone working and motivations should be considered when reviewing the nature of domestic industries compared to other aspects of Bronze Age society. Indications of a pre-metallurgical decline within some domestic industries, including Ireland should also be taken into account. Furthermore, several studies, including the Irish research, clearly shows that once metal was introduced that it had little or no impact upon the functionality of traditional lithic technologies and indeed, this marginal impact seems to have continued throughout the first age of metallurgy where it was, or could be, investigated in any detail. Explanations for this unexpected survival of domestic lithic industries have been sought within this present assessment and it seems that Edmonds (1995) less direct replacement hypothesis is applicable. For instance, Edmonds provides an alternative mechanism to explain the survival and continued functionality domestic stone industries well into the Middle Bronze Age in Britain, suggesting that many of the traditional social dimensions of stone were now fulfilled by metal (1995). And perhaps Ford et al s proposition that formal lithic tools may have been off-set to some extent by less formal types (1984, 167) would begin to fit the evidence emerging from the available studies that have dealt with lithic technology within the domestic sphere of the metal era. The aim of this present publication is therefore to bring up-to-date the state of play regarding recent research dealing with domestic lithic technology in the first age of metallurgy from a pan-european perspective. To establish a criterion to aid the identification in the field of functional lithic forms to begin making sense of the true role of domestic tool technology in relation to metal forms throughout the Bronze Age. It is also hoped that this assessment of the domestic lithic traditions of the Irish Bronze Age will act as a springboard to stimulate debate, further research, inform and basically disseminate the important aspects of essentially a new area of prehistoric archaeological research. 19

20 The structure and format of the study Chapter one presents the methodology of collecting and assessing data and chronological framework employed within the original Irish study of the lithics of the Bronze Age (O Hare 2005). It outlines some of the contextual and dating issues surrounding the recording of lithic technology from domestic contexts from the Beaker period until the end of the Bronze Age. A broad dating scheme is presented and a brief summary is outlined for the main frequency distribution of Irish lithic material associated with a two-fold simplistic division of Earlier Metal Era and the Developed Bronze Age period that was employed for domestic material. This is due to fact that the finer chronological resolution employed in the earlier study was more applicable to funerary/hoard type contexts and not suitable for the broader review of domestic contexts the focus of this present study. The settlements reviewed in this study often span several centuries and therefore the traditional Bronze Age divisions that we tend to employ in relation to metalworking traditions, are not as relevant within this study. The main frequency distributions from the earlier study which includes the non-domestic contexts are summarised within this chapter. Chapter one will outline the main characteristics and explanations of the stone tool technology found within domestic contexts in Ireland in order to follow the presentation of the case studies directly analysed and main patterns of lithic-use identified from written sources in chapter s two to four. Chapter two presents the evidence from both directly analysed lithic collections and those from written sources from sites all over Ireland and spanning the Beaker period until the Early Bronze Age period, from c to 1800 BC. It should be pointed out that many lithic collections were identified within this study that belong to the Beaker/Bronze Age period, but are not included directly within this part of the assessment due to the fact that they could not be refined within a particular phase of the new metal era. Only well dated and chronologically refined collections from domestic contexts are included, although one particularly large collection which directly analysed as part of the study spanned both the Beaker and the traditional Early Bronze Age period. However, by reviewing assemblages from the written record relating to discrete Beaker contexts, it was possible to establish the nature of collections from the earliest stages of the new metal era. 20

21 There were a number of discrete Early Bronze Age collections reviewed that were directly analysed by the present writer as well as discrete post-beaker assemblages described within written sources, which in combination and through time, proved quite informative in building up a clear picture of the nature of earlier metal-era domestic assemblages which could be compared to the later phases of the Bronze Age. This is the focus of the following chapter. This chapter commences with the directly analysed lithics outlining the summary of the main patterns found dealing firstly with primary technology (reduction material and raw material use) followed by secondary technology (the creation and use of tools). The remainder of this chapter deals with information regarding primary and secondary lithic technology from written sources and will present an overview discussion of the main characteristics of lithic technology of the earlier metal era. Chapter three runs chronologically from the post-1800 BC era until the Late Bronze Age and presents evidence in a similar layout to the earlier phases in chapter two in that directly analysed assemblages are presented first, followed by the assessment of contemporary assemblages from written sources. Again, like the earlier period, a number of large collections spanned particular timeframes within the Bronze Age. For example, some assemblages either date between the Middle and Late Bronze Age period, or the dates from these sites could not be specified within these respective timeframes, a number of collections fall into the broader category of the Developed Bronze Age in this section. Interestingly, however, the greater number of sites and collections belong to the post-early Bronze Age period and there were a few specifically Late Bronze Age collections that could be assessed to establish the continuity of forms and quantities through to the latest stages of the Bronze Age in Ireland. The overview technology of the later stages of the Irish Bronze Age will be included in the following chapter dealing with the main patterns of lithic use throughout the first age of metallurgy. Chapter four will review all of the main lithic patterns of raw material use, reduction strategies, production of formal and informal tools throughout the Irish Bronze Age, commencing in the Late Neolithic period and summarise the overall findings that clearly suggest a continuation of functional everyday tool class categories throughout the Irish Bronze Age period, with reference to other regions where applicable and within the framework of metal technology. 21

22 Chapter five takes an overview of the broader patterns of lithic technology identified within other regions and discusses these in relation to the overall impact of metal upon the industries. It highlights the similarity and differences between different regions at different phases of the Bronze Age and Late Neolithic periods. It argues for a continuation of industries well into the Late Bronze Age period based upon evidence from the Irish analysis and evidence emerging from so many diverse regions of a similar survival of essentially ad hoc industries. These will be discussed in relation to the evidence for the use of metal tools and other aspects of the metal industry which might inhibit the uptake of this new material for everyday use within domestic settlements. The conclusion will attempt to answer some of these issues raised within the survey. It will do this by reviewing the main findings of the relationship between metal and traditional domestic industries within a wider regional context. It will explore the possible causes of survival of functional industries in relation to a fully developed metal industry. This section will outline the possible theoretical and practical evidential findings that seem to explain the relationship between metal and stone and the actual role of stone within the domestic sphere during and throughout the Bronze Age period. Explanations as to how this material became so degenerate in most instances, yet remained entirely functional will be presented in diagrammatic form to aid this interpretation. This is based essentially upon Edmonds proposal in relation to the metaphorical replacement/displacement or the erosion of stone by the metal industry, and is employed as a means to explain the fate of the lithic industry during the Bronze Age in relation to the new, exotic material of metal. This mechanism would seem to accommodate the commonality of patterns of domestic lithic use and its long survival identified within Ireland and found within so many different regions. 22

23 Chapter One - Methodology The identification of lithic collections belonging to the Bronze Age A preliminary investigation as part of the earlier doctoral research into lithic technology within the Irish Bronze Age was undertaken initially to test the feasibility of such a topic of research. The initial findings indicated an abundant quantity of contexts and material that required investigation. Furthermore, more lithic material was being unearthed, particularly dating to the Bronze Age period, due to developer-led excavations, making available new material that could be investigated and assessed against the older archived collections. The chronology of the Bronze Age and therefore phases within the expanse of time, were becoming more resolved with the increasing range of radiocarbon dates and re-sequencing/reevaluations of materials such as pottery. For instance, as we employ metal typology to establish the technology of this period, and as direct associations between lithics, and indeed any other material, and metalwork is so rare within the Bronze Age, it was initially very difficult to relate these to the traditional metalworking phases and main currency of metal types. In order to attempt a temporal association between stone and metal, an alternative chronological framework needed to be established. As pottery is generally ubiquitous within sites relating to the Bronze Age period in association with lithic material, ceramic typology therefore seemed to be the best approach to establishing a relative chronology for lithic technology. Other means of dating such as C14 dates were also employed where possible. The catalogue information is included within appendices of the PhD copy entitled The Bronze Age Lithics of Ireland (O Hare 2005) held at Queen s University, Belfast, Archaeology & Palaeoecology Department. All of the context/sites relating to Bronze Age technology both directly and indirectly assessed were included in the catalogue and range from a few to a several thousand pieces relating to almost 300 different sites within Ireland. The sites/contexts containing lithic material relate to all the main phases dating from the Beaker (Early Bronze Age) period until the Dowris (Late Bronze Age). 23

24 The analysis of accessible lithic material When it came to actually recording directly Irish Beaker-only sites and their related lithic technology, a number of accessibility and stratigraphic issues were encountered at the early stages of this research. Most of these were overcome and clear datable sites were established for the purposes of this research. In the early stages of the doctoral study, in order to establish the characteristic nature, if any between the pre-metal and metal era lithic assemblages, Several discrete Final Neolithic collections were examined at a cursory level by the present writer (these are not included directly within the database material relating to the Beaker/Bronze Age period) It was found that indeed the Final Neolithic material was highly distinct from Beaker lithic technology, both in terms of raw material procurement/reduction strategies and in terms of formal type tools and weapons. Therefore, a fairly informative datum point was set by which to assess all succeeding assemblages after the Final/Late Neolithic period. This creates fairly accurate temporal indicator for otherwise difficult to date sites in terms of lithic markers and at the same time raises the question as to why the lithic technology should be so distinct between these two periods, which perhaps be a fruitful topic of research at some later stage. All assemblages that could be identified from the written record and by any other means that could be dated to the Beaker period and the subsequent phases of the Bronze Age were placed within the catalogue of Bronze Age lithics outlined above. Where possible, the actual lithic material relating to these datable sites were recorded and analysed directly by the present writer. These collections were typically located and sourced from within museum and university, from the stores of contract archaeologists and government bodies and any other location where it was at all possible to access the actual lithic assemblages and pieces. These analysed lithics constitute the content of the lithic database c. 16,000 lithic pieces. They range from single artefact to thousands of pieces of debitage within a single collection. The detailed database for this primary material can be accessed within appendices of the PhD copy (The Bronze Age Lithics of Ireland by Maria B. O Hare 2005) held at Queen s University, Belfast, and Archaeology & Palaeoecology Department. Building a relative lithic chronology for the Irish Bronze Age Before discussing how these lithic items and assemblages were distributed across time, and context, the main relative-chronology of the Irish Bronze Age as 24

25 Developed Bronze Age (DBA) Earlier Metal Era (EME) Broad division employed within the lithic study will be reviewed. Table 1 is mainly based on ceramic traditions and corresponding to the main traditional tertiary divisions and Waddell s (1998) scheme of chronological phases within the Irish Bronze Age. The Relative Chronology employed for lithic technology of the Irish Beaker/Bronze Age Main Ceramic type Beaker (Early) (mainly domestic) Beaker (Insular) Encrusted Urns (funerary only) Vase Urns (funerary only) Collared Urns (funerary only) Cordoned Urns (funerary & domestic)) Approx. Date range BC for pottery Irish metalworking phases based on Waddell (1998 tables 3 and 4) Knocknagur ( BC) (Ross Island type copper mines) Bowls (funerary only) Killaha ( BC) Vase (domestic & funerary) Ballyvally ( BC) Cordoned Urns (Domestic) Plain Coarse Wares (Domestic & funerary) Derryniggin ( BC) (Mount Gabriel type copper mines) Killymaddy ( BC) Bishopsland ( BC) Traditional metalworking division Beaker Early Bronze Age Middle Bronze Age Coarse Ware (domestic & funerary Roscommon ( BC) Late Bronze Age Table 1: Relative chronology developed to assess lithic technology throughout the first age of metallurgy in Ireland 25

26 By achieving a finer-resolution of the Irish Bronze Age the lithic material can now be assessed more meaningfully in relation to metalworking types by employing a ceramic typo-chronology. This finer chronology was more applicable to original Irish Bronze Age lithic study which included non-secular contexts. For the discussion of the domestic lithic material, a broader chronology has been employed here. It is divided into the EME (Earlier Metal Era) DBA (Developed Bronze Age - inclusive of the Middle and Late Bronze Age) and where known: the Late Bronze Age (LBA). The chronological framework employed within this study is mostly based upon Brindley s (2007) scheme focusing on the chrono-typological sequence of the Early Bronze Age ceramic traditions. Prior to this being available, Brindley s (1995) broader sequence dating from the Beaker to the Late Bronze Age in Ireland was a very useful starting point for the original Bronze Age lithic study (O Hare 2005). Brindley s (1995) study places both the Beaker and Bowl Tradition within the same phase as a result of her assessment of radiocarbon date ranges for vessels of the earlier metal era in Ireland. She places the Beaker and Bowls within the Introductory Phase corresponding to c to c BC (1995). Furthermore, Case has indicated that some Insular Beaker types (later phase) overlap with the Irish Bowl Tradition (1995). Table 1 shows that according to Brindley s more recent and refined scheme that the Bowl Tradition commencing at around 2175 BC would certainly overlap with the Insular Beakers sequence recorded by Case (1995). In Brindley s later (2007) assessment of the chrono-typological sequence of the ceramic traditions of Ireland commencing with the post Beaker ceramics, she deals specifically with the Earlier Bronze Age ceramic traditions known as the Food Vessels. These include the Bowl Tradition dating to just before 2175 BC and see their main currency of use up to c.1925 BC and the slightly overlapping Vase Tradition, commencing at around 2025 BC (Table 1). The Bowl and Vase Tradition are quite separate traditions where this present research did not find a single overlapping association within the same contexts between these vessels (O Hare 2005). As this present study takes the format of identifying the collective contextual range of tools and weapons available within secure contexts of a domestic nature and the first age of metallurgy in Ireland is marked by quite a number of Beaker settlement sites and the Bowls do not appear to be part of domestic contexts in Ireland and therefore, the present writer defines the Earlier Metal Era assemblages 26

27 as relating to the Beaker and domestic ceramic traditions dating from around 2025 BC to the beginning of the Cordoned Urn Tradition known from both funerary and domestic contexts. Just to review the ceramic chronology within the finer timeframe, for example the burials and related lithic material of the broader Vase Tradition, includes Encrusted Urns, Pygmy Cups and Vase Urns refined within the broad date range of BC by Brindley (2007) (Table 1), which are exclusive to funerary contexts, whereas, the basic Vase vessel also found in graves is a type also commonly associated with domestic material of the same era. Another later vessel known as the Collared Urn is never associated with domestic contexts and seems to be associated exclusively with funerary contexts. This vessel form is dated to the period c /1670 BC and the end of this traditions appears to overlap slightly with the beginning of the main currency of the Cordoned Urns c BC (see Brindley 2007, fig. 153) (Table 1). The Cordoned Urns are associated with both domestic and funerary contexts and I have placed these into the post-earlier Metal Era timeframe for the following reasons. I have referred to the sites relating to this tradition and corresponding dates as the Developed Bronze Age which includes the coarser forms of this ceramic tradition and the Coarse Ware pottery and dates commonly found within domestic sites spanning the Middle and often into the traditional Late Bronze Age period as well. For example, recently, a range of domestic sites emerging with associated Cordoned Urn pottery which, appear to have a significantly longer currency than the funerary pottery of the same type assessed by Brindley (2007). Roche and Grogan s recognition of Middle Bronze Age plain domestic ware (Coarse Ware type pottery) derived from the Cordoned Urn tradition (2012) (Table 1) has helped greatly in filling out the Middle Bronze Age domestic sites a little within this study, which originally were assigned by the present writer to the Late Bronze Age period. Broadly speaking, the Later Irish Bronze Age in general has only in relatively recent times become less opaque as the ceramic sequence has been become chronologically more clearly defined. For example, since the re-evaluations of the Lough Gur Coarse Ware ceramic tradition carried out by Kelly (1978) and in more recent years by Cleary (1993, 1995), where, these have been significant in finally resolving at least one of the enigmatic issues within Irish prehistoric studies; placing this ceramic tradition in the Southwest firmly within the latter part of the Bronze 27

28 Age. As this particular Coarse Ware pottery has become more clearly defined, it has meant that the dating of sites to the later phases of the Irish Bronze Age throughout Ireland, coupled by an increasing range of radiocarbon dates from new and earlier excavations, has led to a significantly greater number of sites dating to the mid to Later Bronze Age being identified. This significantly greater number of sites, particularly as a result of developer-led excavations from the late nineteen-eighties onwards has been noted by Doody (1993). The lithic technology associated with Late Bronze Age activity could not have been assessed in any meaningful manner without such evaluations/re-evaluations of Irish Late Bronze Age material. The clarity of the Later Bronze Age contexts within Ireland is highlighted by Brindley in the following: The contribution of radiocarbon to the Later Bronze Age is different to that of the Early Bronze Age. Until the advent of this dating technique, the Later Bronze Age consisted almost entirely of metal types. Large parts of the country seemed to be wastelands on the various distribution maps which were a main source of evidence of the period (1995, 11). As the particular focus of the Irish Bronze Age lithic industries deals mainly with domestic lithic assemblages, and as explained above, these contexts broadly fall into two main divisions of the Irish Beaker/Bronze Age period. This was an adequate bi-part division in order to assess the main differences, if any, between a time when beyond the metal axe, most tools of metal were not available to replace the traditional lithic industries and a time when metal tools first became available that had the potential to replace the traditional chipped-stone technologies within domestic settlements. A summary of distribution and frequency of lithic pieces and assemblages from all contexts through time The chronology relevant to domestic collections therefore falls into Earlier Metal Era assemblages EME (inclusive of the Beaker and Early Bronze Age); the second division is the DBA (Developed Bronze Age) (commencing with the post-vase tradition and dated to c BC, or two centuries before the traditional Metalworking phase of the Middle Bronze Age. The Developed Bronze Age encompasses the Traditional Middle Bronze Age and Late Bronze Age periods. 28

29 Where possible sites have been subdivided into their traditional phases where the dating evidence will allow. The two distribution maps (Figure 1) shows all of the Bronze Age lithic contexts that could be assigned to a particular phase of the Bronze Age and were employed in the overall assessment of lithic technology. These sites and contexts are included in the catalogue along with the General Bronze Age material that was definitely of the metal era, but could not be more meaningfully refined chronologically to include directly in the lithic assessment, but are never-the-less, important in quantitative terms. The large assemblages refer to collections of several thousand lithic pieces, the medium assemblages correspond to lithic quantities from several hundred to a thousand pieces; and small assemblages represent fewer than 100 pieces. Finally, the single or a few items typically refer to lithics from within grave deposits which are usually quite informative in terms of their temporal and contextual affiliations. As noted above, only sites that can be assigned to a particular phase of the Bronze Age have been included in the maps, and the sites not included are listed in the comprehensive catalogue as: General Bronze Age (GBA), which could not be assessed directly in relation to time, and may perhaps be useful for future research when clearer dates become available for these sites. The Bronze Age lithic types and assemblages that could be placed within phases of the Bronze Age have been distributed according to two main divisions of the Irish Bronze Age for the purposes of this fairly broad review of the overall findings from the original Irish Bronze Age investigation of lithic distribution and dating. 29

30 Simplified distribution of lithic technology by size found within various contexts which could be dated to either the earlier or later phases of the first age of metallurgy within Ireland Figure 1: Distribution of Irish Bronze Age lithic technology from the Beaker period to the end of the Vase Tradition c BC (Earlier metal era = EME) left compared with lithic technology from sites relating to the post-vase Tradition inclusive of Middle and Late Bronze Age sites c BC (Developed Bronze Age = DBA) right. As noted in the chronology discussion, this broad two-part division is due to the fact that some quite large assemblages span the Beaker period to the Vase Tradition and other assemblages belong to the period just prior to and inclusive of the traditional Middle Bronze Age and a few collections span the Middle and Late Bronze Age. Therefore, where it could be established, most assemblages either fall into the EME (Earlier metal era) or DBA (Developed Bronze Age). This device is adequate for the overview assessment of mainly domestic (some quite large) assemblages relating to the Irish Bronze Age. The distribution maps (Figure 1) show a fairly dense distribution of various sized assemblages spanning the entire Bronze Age period. 30

31 Phases and assemblage size EME DBA Large Medium Small Figure 2: Bar chart representing frequency of lithic quantities according to earlier and later phases of the Bronze Age. Bearing in mind that these are only Bronze Age collections that could be placed within specific phases of the Bronze Age, Figure 2 demonstrates that the small assemblages (typically containing several to one hundred lithic pieces) are the most dominant type and particularly within the period post-1800/1700 BC, although the large assemblages are fairly sparse within both the earlier and later phases of the Bronze Age. The medium-sized assemblages are dominant within both the early and later phases of the Bronze Age; these typically constitute several hundred to a thousand lithics. Furthermore, as this survey will show, the actual quantity of lithic material found within domestic/secular contexts is positively abundant and does not decrease through time. Indeed, there were much more domestic assemblages containing often very large quantities of lithic material (interestingly worked in a very similar manner to the earlier assemblages) dating to the latter stages of the Irish Bronze Age period than the earlier stages, inclusive of the Beaker period. Figure 3 highlights the predominance of the non-secular material in the Earlier Metal Era (EME) compared to the Developed Bronze Age (DBA); conversely, the Developed Bronze Age assemblages relating to secular contexts are almost doubled within this later period. It should be pointed out that although the DBA period spans a greater period of time compared to the EME that most of the later assemblages in reality relate to the Middle/Late Bronze Age (c BC) which is a comparable timeframe for the earlier lithic assemblages. 31

32 secular non-secular 20 0 EME DBA Figure 3: Bar chart representing frequency of lithics by context type according to the broad Bronze Age division. Phases for Lithic assemblages 15% 48% GBA EME 37% DBA N=370 contexts Figure 4; Pie chart representing percentages of contexts for lithics within each phase of the Bronze Age including general Bronze Age contexts. Figure 4 presents the frequency Bronze Age lithic contexts, including the collections that could not be placed within a specific phase which, may belong to either the Early Metal Era or the Developed Bronze Age, or straddle this convenient demarcation. These are important to bear in mind and may become useful when better dating for these sites becomes available. They are important collections also as the GBA (General Bronze Age) sites account for 15 per cent of the total 370 contexts (Figure 4). Furthermore, Figure 4 also shows an unexpectedly high percentage, almost half 32

33 of the total contexts containing lithics relating to the Irish Beaker/Bronze Age corresponding to the latter part of the new metal era. In conclusion to this section reviewing the general chronology and distribution established in the earlier study, Figure 4 strongly indicates that assemblages dating from the earliest until the latest phases of the new age of metallurgy in Ireland do not decrease quantitatively through time. The following section will now review the main tool class categories as found within domestic (secular) contexts only so as to explain the evaluation of these lithic collections through time outlined further on. Explaining the main patterns of lithic use in the Irish Bronze Age Apart from stone arrowheads and more abundant scraper forms, the Irish Beaker/Bronze Age assemblages would look sparse indeed, if the less recognisable tool forms and reduction strategies were not first understood. As the Irish domestic lithic assemblages are dominated in most instances by these less informal tools and previously unrecognised lithic reduction strategy, it is essential to outline the nature of these assemblages before proceeding with the actual presentation of the analysed collections, augmented by written sources. The nature of reduction of large quantities of lithic material found throughout settlements of the Irish Bronze Age period, and most important in terms of its relationship to metal, the tools, beyond more obvious scrapers, the occasional arrowhead or polished stone axe, produced via the atypical reduction strategy did not generally conform to our traditional classification of tools. Essentially, the Bronze Age industries from the earliest phases of metallurgy (the Beaker period) in Ireland are ad hoc and require an entirely new approach to identification, classification and interpretation For instance, the reduction strategy identified within the Irish assemblages did not resemble the expected reduction technique employed within most prehistoric assemblages which we as archaeologists and lithic specialists refer to as platform reduction. The nature of the Irish Bronze Age material did not show the normal characteristics of blades/flakes being detached from a platform, indeed, the Irish material found very little evidence of blade technology and certainly a notable absence of platforms. The occasional presence of amorphous type cores (where several detachments will be made from fairly random platform surfaces) within 33

34 these industries are also typically indicative of expedient and a more opportunistic approach to lithic reduction. The Bronze Age literature pertaining to lithic technology was sparse but some indications were made of reduction material referred to as bipolar reduced, scalar technology or simply split-pebble and not infrequently described as containing a high incidence of broken, fragmentary, chunks and chipped material. It eventually became apparent that all these terms may be describing the same thing and with some support from scholars working on Irish Bronze lithic material, it became clear that a single term would be best applied to the evidence emerging, so bipolar reduction as a technology that would best describe the Irish Bronze Age reduction strategy was applied. Furthermore, support for this premise comes from the work of Knarrström who describes bipolar reduction strategy as one of the most expedient forms of reduction which characterises the Bronze Age Scandinavian settlement technologies (2001). Basically, this non-conforming lithic reduction material had to be assessed within some framework of classification in order to make meaningful interpretations of the data. This study employed this term although this also had its difficulties as not all scholars agree with the details of this strategy. As Shott points out there are nearly as many definitions of bipolar reduction as there are bipolar objects (1989, 2), which leaves many issues still unresolved in attempting to describe such typically crude technologies. However, I have employed an amalgamation of research into bipolar material by several scholars such as: Kobayashi (1975); Crabtree (1982); Cotterell and Kamminga (1987); Ahler (1989); Shott (1989); Knight (1991); Kuijt et al (1995); Knarrström (2001) and Shott and Sillitoe (2005) and combined these with personal observations of a wide range of essentially bipolar assemblages from all over Ireland to gain a clearer insight into the technologies employed. Basically, this fairly randomly fractured lithic material, once it is organised into some semblance of type and a consistent methodology applied, the technology does become somewhat clearer and most importantly, from the point of view of this particular study, it strongly indicates a consistent lithic strategy throughout the Irish Bronze Age period which cannot be dismissed as random. Furthermore, it also shows that the size of previously bewildering lithic assemblages of the Irish Bronze Age is en-power with Neolithic assemblages. 34

35 It is not, for example, entirely satisfactory that we continuously try to apply the technological techniques and systems of recording that we employ for premetallurgical assemblages to those of the Bronze Age and even beyond. It is in many cases, particularly when it comes to recording the reduction strategy, almost impossible to make the bipolar reduction strategy fit into the existing platform reduction and debitage systems of recording. It is like trying to fit a square peg into a round hole. For instance, a distinction between platform and bipolar cores is highlighted by Knight who notes that: A core has flakes struck off it, and one is usually left with debitage and a core. The anvil (bipolar) technique, on the other hand, usually produces more than one bipolar piece (1991, 61). The term bipolar core, even though it is not technically a core in the conventional sense, has also been employed throughout this text for consistency and in some instances would better be described as chunks or blocky material in the case of chert and quartz and split, quartered or segmented pebbles in the case of (erratic) glacial flint. Essentially the bipolar technique involves resting a nodule or block on an anvil (hard stone) and hitting it from above at about 90 producing relatively uncontrolled flake removals (Knight 1991, 57). Figure 5 demonstrates the basic stages of knapping employing bipolar reduction. This is fundamentally different to the platform technique where the parent nodule is the core and flakes or blades are deliberately detached from the core. Figure 5: Stages of knapping strategy via bipolar reduction suggested by the cores recovered from a Bronze Age settlement in Sweden (Knarrström 2001, fig. 51). 35

36 Other technology that is found within bipolar assemblages is that of pieces with platform struck attributes, although according to Kuijt et al., these can occur sporadically within otherwise bipolar industries (1995). Some of the Irish assemblages had a more expedient form of platform type technology such as amorphous cores (arbitrary platforms and flake removals) or a combination of a previously anvilled (bipolar) core that had an opportunistic flake removed at <90 employing a flat platform. These are important to recognize, although essentially these pieces made up a fairly minimal component compared to the overall use of bipolar, hard hammer, direct percussion employing an anvil. The main morphology of bipolar cores seems to be formed by repeatedly placing previously produced cores on an anvil, so, depending upon how many episodes of reduction, where bipolar cores are placed back on the anvil stone and hit from above at 90, the result produces increasingly thinner bipolar cores which typically exhibit pointed ends (end placed on the anvil stone) and an opposing flattish (lipped) platform surface. Bipolar cores from Irish Bronze Age sites often showed pointed forms and opposite flattish platforms indicate that these have been anvilled several times. Essentially this is similar to hard hammer, direct percussion. This bipolar cores often are simply pieces or chunks of material and typically do not display the classic flake detachments from opposing sides that would be perhaps expected with the bipolar reduction method; often these pieces (bipolar cores) do not appear to be worked until they are more closely inspected. Frequently there are clues to their significance in showing at least one face that has a bulbous surface indicative of being split from a larger piece. Sometimes the more elongated bipolar cores are remarkably consistent forms and their morphology remains consistent irrespective of whether they are of chalk flint, small pebble type flint, chert or quartz. Experimental work has shown that the latter material appears to demand bipolar reduction as it does not fracture predictably like flint or chert. When these bipolar technologies are viewed collectively rather than individually; they often begin to show a previously unrecognised morphological conformity. Other characteristics of some bipolar cores when assessed over several hundred to thousands of pieces begin to show signs that pieces that have gone through several episodes of bipolar reduction on the same core piece that there is sometimes a type of lateral twist present. This appears to have been caused by the 36

37 energy of the simultaneous impact from the downward percussion and the upward impact of the anvil converging in the central part of the piece. Bipolar technology pieces cannot be orientated in the same manner as conventional platform technology in order to take measurements, for instance: from the proximal and distal ends. Therefore, bipolar pieces have been measured within this study at 10mm intervals for their greatest dimensions. Although this was a crude method of measurement, the results of overall sizes of bipolar material (bipolar cores and bipolar flakes) showed remarkably conservative patterns. Bipolar cores are simply chunkier and tend to have several faces, whereas flakes have usually two main faces and are typically thinner. Scalar flake was previously employed in the original study and is listed as such within the databases relating to the Irish material but will be listed within this study as bipolar flakes to avoid unnecessary confusion. Bipolar flakes are more flake-like product of the bipolar process generally thinner (more reduced) than bipolar cores. The bipolar flakes sometimes possess edges suitable for use as tools as noted above. Some bipolar flakes show an irregular upper dorsal and could be described as splayed. Bipolar flakes tend to have fairly irregular upper dorsal faces, if any at all, and butts (platforms) are typically missing. They do not exhibit typical bulbs of percussion or other attributes seen on platform produced flakes (Figure 6). The bipolar process by its very nature does not typically produce blade technology (presumably this requires total control over the process) Figure 6: A range of bipolar on-anvil chert flakes and cores, some refitted, showing 90 impacts from Turtle Rock, Australia (right) (after Knight 1991, fig. 13). 37

38 1. Bipolar cores/chunks = lithic pieces with more than two main surfaces which show clear signs of being fractured in any manner (measured at greatest dimensions at 10mm intervals starting at <20mm upwards). 2. Bipolar flakes/flattish pieces = lithic pieces with two main faces/surfaces which show clear signs of being fractured in any manner (measured at greatest dimensions at 10mm intervals starting at <20mm upwards). 3. Micro-debitage = any bipolar piece or fragment that is less than 10mm in its greatest dimensions. An assumption was made in the original Irish lithic Bronze Age study that if the range, proportion and quantity of ad hoc tools are similar within assemblages dating from the Beaker, Early and Middle Bronze Age period are seen within the Late Bronze Age then: it will be assumed that metal did not play a significant role within domestic economies. This is based upon the premise that metal tools beyond the axe were not in circulation until the Late Bronze Age period which would have been suitable to replace domestically produced lithic tools. This was indeed accepted as a result of the study which will be outlined further on. This present paper then sought to explore in more detail the possible causes of this result and look more closely at the overall relationship between the role of metal and the role of stone throughout the Bronze Age period. These issues will be discussed in the conclusion after all the results of the direct analysis and what could be gleaned from the literature are presented. Fundamental to the approach made in the study of the Irish Bronze Age lithic technologies regarding the bipolar reduction strategy and the resultant tools was the assumption that if, as Högberg draws attention to the fact that unmodified flakes are traditionally classified as waste and not typically viewed as tools per se (2009). Indeed, the same can be said of most regions, including Ireland, in this assumption. An assumption was developed within the original study that a pattern would emerge to suggest that a certain proportion of used bipolar cores and flakes would have to form the basis of the tool-kit along with more obvious flaked and retouched pieces such as scrapers and the occasional arrowhead or formal tool and that these proportions would be seen throughout the Bronze Age, and certainly should be seen within the Beaker and Early and perhaps Middle Bronze Age domestic collections as there was not at that time a suitable replacement in metal for the bulk of domestic 38

39 everyday tools. By extrapolation of the nature of unmodified lithic forms functioning as tools emerging such as within Scandinavia to the Irish bipolar assemblages, combined with experimental work carried out by the present writer and, simply by observing the patterns within Irish Bronze Age assemblages, also suggests that bipolar pieces with appropriate edges and tips were used for a wide range of tasks, which earlier industries carried out using more formal, recognisable and therefore more easily classifiable tools that are much better recorded within the archaeological record than their more expedient counterparts. It was not possible given the sheer volume of material that was assessed in a very broad manner within the original Irish Bronze Age lithic study to carry out usewear analysis on these Irish Bronze Age assemblages, although it would certainly be a useful line of research for the future. Furthermore, as identified by Shott and Sillitoe, many of the bipolar flakes were simply used briefly and rapidly discarded, after selection for various tasks and were not always available for use-wear analysis (2005). Some pieces were classified as used not simply because of polish on areas on pieces that could not have been caused by natural agents, but also certain pieces with and without polish simply looked like tools; they handled like tools and they were assumed to be tools. Common sense prevailed in that the quantitative nature of this present survey did not allow for micro-wear analysis of these pieces and indeed ethnographic evidence has also suggested that these bipolar produced nonmodified pieces were often used and discarded very rapidly and would frequently prove very difficult under use-wear analysis to detect. In relation to the type of tools produced via the bipolar reduction process, the fundamental difference between platform and bipolar reduction technique is that the platform core types exhibit evidence of careful planning in terms of a preconceived outcome, whereas the bipolar reduction technique, based upon ethnographic evidence, indicates that after bipolar reduction the broken pieces are simply chosen for suitability to the task, as highlighted by Knight (1991). This is further supported by the ethnographic evidence of bipolar industries as demonstrated by Shott and Sillitoe who point out that frequently flakes which then become used, are selected from the debris from core reduction, and that the flakes are both more diverse and better controlled than is typical of most ethnographic accounts (2005, 654). 39

40 The term used (bipolar cores and flakes) as defined by Shott and Sillitoe (2001) has been employed within the Irish study, rather than utilised as this latter terminology is one typically employed by conventional methods of recording to imply use over time as seen by obvious striations and denticulate (coarse flaking) on a piece. The definition of a used bipolar flake employed in this study is based upon Shott and Sillitoe s (2005) observation which are summarised as follows: 1. Curation life of used flakes does not have the same meaning as retouched flakes. 2. Used flakes are briefly employed and immediately discarded. 3. The class of tool (the used flake) is multifunctional and are employed for sawing, boring, planning, engraving, drilling, shredding and cutting; although typically each individual piece is restricted for its short use-life to one material and one task. Figure 7 demonstrates the simple process of splitting a pebble (bipolar reduction) to create a workable tool employed without further modification and Figure 8 presents several flakes (bipolar produced) with polish indicative of use (represented by dots). Figure 7: Bipolar reduction strategy and suggested production of segments as cutting tools as presented by Knarrström (2001, fig. 95). 40

41 Figure 8: Bipolar flake pieces exhibiting polish from use (after Knarrström 2001, fig. 100). The original data employed the term utilised for pieces found to have been used. This was identified on the basis of looking for evidence of polish (sometimes quite slight and subtle) by using suitable magnification. Often the subtle signs of polish resulting from use were seen on the concave, hooked, tipped, straight or convex edges/ends of the lithic pieces. In other words, the fact that most of the polish could not have got onto these edges and ends without being used would strongly suggest that this polish could not have occurred under natural conditions. It has been argued that based upon the results of the Irish Bronze Age lithic study the specific technology employed within the Irish industries from the beginning until the end is that of bipolar-on-anvil reduction strategy. This is also known as a direct hammer and simple technology, sometimes by simply splitting pebbles. The resultant tools of this technology are fairly ad hoc and are more often than not unmodified in the technical sense of the word and seem to have been selected due to their suitability as tools from the debris and employed for various tasks without applying further modification in most cases. This is based upon observations from other Bronze Age lithic studies and ethnographic evidence of the bipolar strategy and its use-wear analysis based upon Knight (1991), Shott and Sillitoe (2005) and Knarrström s (2001) observations then, the Irish tool-kit of the metal era did not look anywhere near as sparse as the British tool-kit of the same period. Unfortunately, it is not so easy to classify these used pieces into sub-categories of awls/borer tools, or blades/knives, saws etc as was perhaps a simpler task in the 41

42 pre-metallurgical era, but the important point is that at least it is an attempt to establish the potential for a wide range of multi-functional used tools, albeit fairly unconventional implements. These used implements seem to have been employed continuously within Bronze Age domestic sites and the fact that they don t fit into our classification systems doesn t mean that these ad hoc tools are not important; a point made by Edmonds who stresses the continued importance and fairly common association of highly opportunistic functional tools associated with domestic activity of the Middle Bronze Age period in Britain (1995). The Bronze Age communities certainly didn t make it easy for us as archaeologists to understand their day-to-day strategies and activities; perhaps we need to stop trying to push a square peg into a fairly small round hole and simply employ common sense. Observation, hands-on experimentation and intra-inter-site strategies across many assemblages and pieces, as the present writer has applied, is the only reasonable way to approach this technology. In many instances it has been necessary to find entirely new strategies to attempt to begin to understand this bewildering array of ad hoc lithic material. In some cases, conventional lithic recording systems were simply abandoned in favour of an entirely different measuring stick. It is hoped that the methodology outlined above will aid the interpretation of the Bronze Age assemblages presented in the following chapter that have been in most cases, directly analysed by the present writer, and are employed to outline the nature and overall patterns of lithic technology from the Beaker period until the Late Bronze Age period from a wide range of regions throughout Ireland. 1 Bipolar Tool (used) pieces with more than two main surfaces which show clear signs of being fractured in any manner (measured at greatest dimensions at 10mm intervals starting at <20mm upwards); A. polish in area or surface that cannot have occurred under natural conditions; B. Obvious wear from use at a point/and or edge that would strongly suggest use as a tool; C. Morphologically suitable to be employed as cutting/flaking/borer type tool and can be easily handled with a sturdy grip to employ as a tool. Some tools had all three criteria or combination of one or two. 42

43 Chapter Two - Chronological presentation of directly analysed and indirect assessment of domestic technology throughout the earlier metal era (c up to 1600 BC) This first case study is followed by several other studies where a direct analysis of lithic material was carried out by the present writer. These are all from domestic non-secular contexts dating to the post-beaker period. After the direct analysis review, the written sources will be surveyed in relation to the main patterns of lithic technology established within the directly analysed collections. And it should be said, that the written sources dealing specifically with Beaker lithic technology, turned out to be quite informative and confirm many of the patterns established for the directly analysed Beaker, and now extended Early Bronze Age settlement under review below. Roughan Hill, Co. Clare (upland Beaker EBA farmsteads) Several publications relate to this site: Jones (1996, 1998, 2003 and forthcoming), Jones and Gilmer (1999) as well as lithic analysis updated (O Hare 2009). Although this collection contained a large quantity of chert lithic material and belongs to the Beaker period, this collection also spans the entire Early Bronze Age period, which became apparent during the post-analysis stage of the entire lithic collection. This means that this large collection relating to several sites within the area spans a greater period of the earlier metal era than would have been desired for the purpose of this study. However, when compared directly with the discrete Beaker collections from the literature, the parallels were clear and show a temporally diagnostic technology which can be clearly defined from the Late Neolithic assemblages, thus, giving a clear insight into domestic lithic technology during the first age of metallurgy. The information relating to Beaker collections already recorded in the literature will be outlined further on in this section relating to the period c to 1800 BC. This lithic collection relates to the Beaker and Early Bronze Age period and is situated at Roughan Hill on the Burren in County Clare, Settlements 1, 2, 5 and 7 (Jones forthcoming and O Hare 2009). The lithic material recovered Roughan Hill, Co. Clare was associated with domestic industries relating to the Beaker period; Early Bronze Age period. In Ireland, this spans several hundred years. 43

44 The results of the lithic analysis of 5,590 mainly chert lithic pieces, deemed archaeologically significant, were recovered from four main sites excavated as part of research on the Burren in County Clare and the bulk of the material was associated in particular with two main areas referred to as Farmstead 1 and Farmstead 2. There is no metalworking evidence indicated within these sites. Farmstead 1 and 2, Roughan Hill, Co Clare - Primary (reduction technology) Figure 9 illustrates a typical pointed bipolar (chert) core from Roughan Hill. Figure 10 presents the proportional frequency of primary reduction technology from the main collection from Farmstead 1. From the total of 4510 pieces, 3417 relate to primary technology (76 per cent). The reduction assemblage is essentially made up of non-platform produced material that has obviously been broken and would best be described as broken chunks and flake-like pieces, a reduction technology that would find its closest parallels with Bipolar-on-anvil technique. The reduction assemblage is almost exclusively made up of bipolar reduced material. Figure 9: Chert bipolar core from Farmstead 1, Roughan Hill, Co. Clare dating to the Beaker/Early Bronze Age period. Over a third are bipolar cores, a similar proportion are scalar flakes and under third represented by micro-debitage pieces which can be a bi-product of either platform of bipolar technology, but given the predominance of bipolar pieces, these are assumed to be the result of the latter reduction strategy. 44

45 Proportional frequency of primary (reduction) technology (chert) from Farmstead 1 (Beaker/EBA) (n=3417) 3% 28% 35% Bipolar cores bipolar flakes micro-debitage platform 34% Figure 10: Pie chart showing Primary technology components from Farmstead 1, Roughan Hill, Co. Clare. Figure 11 presents the proportional frequency of primary reduction technology from Farmstead 2. From the total of 1048 lithic pieces, 992 pieces represent primary technology (94 per cent). This assemblage has a predominance of bipolar cores representing jut under a quarter of primary assemblage and 14 per cent are bipolar flakes. Although, like the collection from Farmstead 1, the primary technology is essentially bipolar, the primary technology shows a significantly high frequency of micro-debitage pieces representing almost two thirds of the primary material form Farmstead 2. 45

46 Proportional frequency of primary (reduction) technology from (chert) Farmstead 2 (Beaker/EBA) (n=992) 21% Bipolar cores bipolar flakes 14% micro-debitage 65% platform Figure 11: Pie chart showing Primary technology components from Farmstead 2, Roughan Hill, Co. Clare. The high concentration of micro-debitage is fairly unusual within these bipolar assemblages compared to other collections. However, irrespective of this variation, the essential point is that these assemblages are bipolar productions and the paucity of platform produced material within these assemblages is worth noting at this point. This paucity of platform produced material compared to bipolar reduced lithics was also the case for the significantly smaller collections from Farmstead 5 and 7 and the lithic scatter material. Platform produced pieces were entirely lacking from Farmstead 2 and the platform technology from the larger collection from Farmstead 1 accounted for 1.4 per cent of the primary reduction assemblage which included a small percentage of platform blades (0.08 per cent). The remaining primary reduction pieces from the Roughan Hill site from various contexts are represented by a very small percentage of platform pieces. Analysis of the distribution of bipolar types throughout all of the stratified and unstratified contexts within Farmstead 1 showed that there was no significant variation of types of technology within these features. There was, no significant variation between the lithics derived from secure contexts and those from the topsoil. Therefore, it would seem that this lithic 46

47 reduction material is representative of a fairly conservative technological approach to lithic reduction spanning several centuries. And the similar range of lithic material within both secure and unstratified contexts would suggest a fairly undisturbed assemblage. Overall dimensional attributes of bipolar pieces from Roughan Hill Measurements were taken for all the bipolar reduced pieces from Roughan Hill, although these are quite crude intervals, this is due to the fact that bipolar pieces cannot be orientated in the same manner as conventionally produced platform types. Thus, broad dimensional measurements were taken along the greatest length of the bipolar pieces. These were at 10mm intervals for all the bipolar cores and scalar flakes from Roughan Hill. The dimensional attributes and overall morphology of the primary reduction material in the form of bipolar cores and scalar flakes, albeit a crude system of measuring, for most of the assemblages within the study, as will be seen as the survey unfolds. The whole population of bipolar cores and scalar flakes from all the sites at Roughan Hill were combined and measured. This was because no dimensional variation was established between sites or context for either the primary reduction or the secondary technology at Roughan Hill, Co. Clare. Figure 12 shows that bipolar flakes have a high frequency of pieces <20mm, and bipolar cores also tend to exhibit the dimensions of <20mm, although some bipolar cores are larger at <30mm and a few are <40mm. Bipolar flakes tend to converge on dimensions of <20mm. These are typically smaller and thinner than bipolar cores. There was no dimensional variation established between the bipolar produced pieces from Farmstead 1 and 2 or any of the other bipolar types recovered from the contexts within these settlements or the other sites and lithic concentrations from Roughan Hill. This dimensional pattern is that typically scalar flakes occupy the smaller dimensions and bipolar cores the slightly larger dimensions. This is due to the fact that typically bipolar cores are larger than the flakes. However, the dimensional pattern where bipolar cores and bipolar flakes tend to cluster together into idealised dimensions depending upon material constraints. The chert material tends to be similar proportionally to other assemblages of flint and even large nodular type, although within these latter assemblages the overall sizes are larger, but the bipolar flakes and bipolar cores still cluster into fairly restricted 47

48 dimensions. This is seen even when extremely different sized assemblages are compared. Combined bipolar dimensions from the Roughan Hill collection (Beaker/EBA) (chert) bipolar flakes bipolar cores 0 Figure 12: Bar chart showing dimensions of bipolar pieces from the Farmsteads at Roughan Hill, Co. Clare collection Farmstead I and 2, Roughan Hill, Co. Clare - Secondary (tool) technology Secondary technology (tool-classes) The results of the secondary technology in the form of tools from Roughan Hill show that out of 5,590 mainly chert lithic pieces most of these were derived from Farmstead 1 (80 per cent) and Farmstead 2 (18 per cent). It was observed within the Roughan Hill collection that many of the technically unmodified pieces such as bipolar cores are naturally pointed after several reduction sequences and borne out by experimental work employing non-archaeological chert from the Burren. It looks like these bipolar pieces were selected and used for boring, piecing, scraping and cutting tasks. These would have been perfectly suitable as tools 48

49 without being technically modified as seen in the typical sharp edge that these pieces would have and frequently the opposing edge would have a naturally thicker scalloped edge resulting from the reduction sequence (see Figure 9). Therefore, the best interpretation for the significantly high incidence of utilised bipolar pieces from the assemblage at Farmstead 1, and indeed the relatively high concentration from the settlement at Farmstead 2 is exactly this extrapolation of the ethnographic evidence that appears to be intrinsically linked to the nature of bipolar reduction. Farmstead 1 produced a total of 4510 lithic pieces. From this total, 1074 lithics could be identified as tools (secondary technology) accounting for almost a quarter of the entire collection from Farmstead 1. Figure 13 presents the proportional frequency of these tool-class categories. Proportional frequency of secondary (tools) technology from Farmstead 1 (Beaker/EBA) (n=1074) 16% 4% ad hoc scrapers sub-circular scrapers flaked pieces 80% used pieces Figure 13: Bar chart showing Secondary technology components from Farmstead 1, Roughan Hill, Co. Clare dating to the Beaker/Early Bronze Age period. Farmstead 1 revealed a range of formal scrapers of the sub-circular variety. These as expected from the available literature are distinctive and morphological standardised types of this period. These make up 16 per cent of the total tool- 49

50 category (Figure 13). Beyond these distinctive scraper types, a number of pieces were retouched (deliberately modified) and some were quite formal (Figures 14-15). The secondary assemblage is dominated by used pieces, made up of bipolar cores and bipolar flake types. Combined the used pieces make up over 80 per cent of the entire secondary technology from Farmstead 1 (Figure 13). The bipolar core-type tools appear to be mainly pointed types. This category makes up the vast majority of the utilised tools (almost 70 per cent) and bipolar flakes (used), with mainly sharp edges, account for 12 per cent. Based upon the morphology and evidence of use, these bipolar pieces, appear to have been employed for a range of cutting/sawing and boring/piercing tasks (Figures 16-17). Figure 14: A detail of good quality chert sub-circular scraper from Roughan Hill, Farmstead 1 Co. Clare. Figure 15: Drawing of a selection of chert sub-circular (thumbnail) scrapers from Roughan Hill, Farmstead 1, Co. Clare. 50

51 Figure 16: Farmstead 1, Roughan Hill, Co. Clare, pointed tools made of chert with visible polish on the pointed ends. Figure 17: Pointed bipolar core after several reduction episodes from Farmstead 1, Roughan Hill, Co. Clare. An awl type tool. The secondary tool-class category within the Farmstead 1 site contained a few formal types. These are not listed in the overall tool-class pie-chart as these are numerically low. The numerically low artefacts consist of two well-made chert hollow based arrowheads (Figure 18), which are certainly not without parallel from other assemblages of the earlier metalworking era, as will be borne out as the survey unfolds. Moreover, the present writer proposes, based upon a detailed examination of potential Neolithic associations for this arrowhead form, that there are no convincing pre-beaker contexts for the hollow based arrowhead in Ireland, thus, making these fairly good chronological indicators alongside the barbed and tanged arrowheads; a form that are widely accepted as being of the Beaker/Bronze Age period. 51

52 Figure 18: One of two chert hollow based arrowheads from the Beaker farmstead settlement 1 Roughan Hill, Co. Clare (No. 95E061, 156 courtesy of Jones University of Galway). The other formal stone tools recovered from Roughan Hill, are the portions of two axes and the possible manufacturing flakes (Figure 19). These are fairly common artefacts found in small numbers in association with Beaker/Bronze Age domestic activity. Again, this will be shown as the survey unfolds. Figure 19: Possible roughout distal portion of a stone axe made of mudstone found unstratified within Farmstead 1 at Roughan Hill, Co. Clare (top and bottom right). A polished stone axe with missing distal portion found in Midden at Roughan Hill, Farmstead 1, Co. Clare. Farmstead 2 revealed a total of 1048 lithic pieces. Fifty-six lithics could be identified as secondary (tools). The tools from this later settlement only account for just over 5 per cent of the total technology in proportion to the primary bipolar reduction assemblage. However, when the secondary tool-class is taken in isolation within Farmstead 2, the proportion of tool-types within this category shows that: the used category accounts for just over half of the total secondary technology from this site whereas, the more formal tools, mainly in the form of sub-circular scrapers, makes up most of the remaining half of the tool-class category (Figure 20). There 52

53 were only a few retouched bipolar pieces within the secondary technology from Farmstead 2 and no arrowheads or coarse stone tools were recovered from this context. Proportional frequency of secondary (tools) technology from Farmstead 2 (Beaker/EBA) (n=56) 46% ad hoc scrapers sub-circular scrapers 52% flaked pieces used pieces 2% Figure 20: Pie chart showing Secondary technology components from Farmstead 2, Roughan Hill, Co. Clare. Regarding the more formal tools, the scraper from all the areas within Roughan Hill had a combined scraper population of 4.17 per cent which were fairly standardised types both in terms of morphology and dimensions. A total population of 188 chert scrapers were included in this analysis and a total population of 201 sub-circular scrapers were recovered throughout the various contexts from this site where 175 were distributed throughout most of the lithic-rich contexts within Farmstead 1. Farmstead 2 also produced a relatively high frequency of the same type scrapers totalling 26 in all. 53

54 Leedaun I, Co. Mayo settlement ( BC settlement) This directly analysed collection is like the Roughan Hill, County Clare assemblages, chert based. There are many parallels, particularly regarding the use of bipolar technology and an indication of the use of bipolar produced pieces that were suitable as tools both with and without, further modification. This is a much smaller assemblage compared to those from *Roughan Hill, but never-the-less quite informative particularly regarding the more expedient, opportunistic approach to lithic reduction as seen within the first case study from the Beaker and broadly contemporaneous Early Bronze Age activity on the Burren in County Clare. The Leedaun I, site, Co. Mayo (Walsh 1999; Gillespie 1999; lithics report Anderson 2000) is chert dominated. As some fragmentary prehistoric pottery was identified as Bronze Age (Gillespie per. comm.) and a radiocarbon date range for this site was Cal BC, it seems reasonable to suggest that this site is in part contemporaneous with the *Roughan Hill settlements. These dates correspond closest to the broader domestic Vase Tradition. This chert-based industry assessed by the present writer was derived from a total of 263 pieces previously analysed from Leedaun, Co. Mayo by Anderson (2000). For the purposes of this study, c. 100 lithic pieces were analysed by the present writer from secure contexts in order to answer particular research questions that had emerged from the fist analysis of the Roughan Hill assemblage. Primary technology distribution From the total of 100 directly analysed pieces from Leedaun the primary technology 86.3 per cent of the total. The technology from Leedaun is as follows: Bipolar cores represent 41 per cent of the total, followed by bipolar flakes making up 32 per cent and remaining 27 per cent is represented by micro-debitage (Figure 21). These proportions for bipolar cores, scalar flakes and micro-debitage pieces are almost identical to those recorded from Roughan Hill, Farmstead 1, Co, Clare which included a significantly larger chert assemblage of a few thousand pieces. 54

55 Proportional frequency of primary (reduction) technoloy (chert) from Leedaun 1 ( l BC (n= 84) 27% 41% Bipolar cores bipolar flakes micro-debitage platform 32% Figure 21: Pie chart showing primary technology components from Leedaun 1, Co. Mayo. Dimensional distribution of the bipolar technology The dimensional attributes and overall morphology of the primary reduction material in the form of bipolar cores and bipolar flakes remains quite conservative between this small chert collection and the significantly larger assemblage from Roughan Hill, Co. Clare. Figure 22 shows very similar dimensional attributes from the bipolar pieces within the Leedaun collection where scalar flakes and bipolar cores have a higher frequency of <20mm and the bipolar flakes occupy the smaller dimensions and a small quantity of bipolar cores have preferred dimensions of <30mm, some <40mm, which is a direct reflection of the dimensional attributes and indeed morphology of the bipolar produced pieces from Roughan Hill, Co. Clare. 55

56 Leedaun I, bipolar dimensions (chert) bipolar flakes bipolar cores Figure 22: Bar chart showing the dimensional frequency of bipolar cores and bipolar flakes from the Leedaun, I, Co. Mayo Secondary technology (tools) Figure 23 is a pie chart showing a range of ad hoc categorie, mainly flaked pieces, along with fairly standardised sub-circular scraper forms from Leedaun I, Co. Mayo. The main secondary tool-class categories compare well with the scrapers from the Beaker/Early Bronze Age settlements within Farmstead 1 and 2, Roughan Hill, Co. Clare, although the bipolar produced ad hoc pieces are unusual, due to the presence of flaking. This is fairly atypical of most Bronze Age assemblages, which will become clear as the survey unfolds, 56

57 Proportion of secondary (tools) technology from Leedaun I, ( BC) (n=20) 5% 11% 17% ad hoc scrapers sub-circular scrapers flaked pieces used pieces 67% Figure 23: Pie chart showing Secondary technology components from Leedaun I, Co. Mayo. Figure 23 includes a number of scraper forms akin to those from Roughan Hill. There were four chert sub-circular scrapers derived from secure contexts recorded within this study from the original population of 11. Although there were a fairly significant proportion of used pieces in the form of bipolar types as seen within both the settlements at Roughan Hill, these are a minimal component within the Leedaun I, tool category. The main component of the secondary technology within Leedaun I, are basically modified/flaked and non-classifiable pieces, accounting for two thirds of the total secondary technology. The comparison of the two contemporary farmsteads from Roughan Hill is important in demonstrating quite different approaches to tool-production. For example, the tool-class categories are quite different where although both had very few ad hoc scrapers, the population of sub-circular scrapers accounts for almost half the tool-class category from Farmstead 2 whereas at Farmstead 1, these only account for 16 per cent and the used category from this settlement makes up most of the remaining tool-classes and this category accounts for over half the Farmstead 2 tool assemblage. 57

58 The Farmstead 1 collection was compared with the Farmstead 2 types and it was demonstrated that these showed remarkably similar dimensional attributes and morphology and this can be seen within other collections such as Leedaun I, Co. Mayo outlined above and certainly indicated alongside formal type scrapers and a range of arrowhead types identified within the direct assessment thus far as indicated in the literature pertaining to the earlier phases of metallurgy which will be reviewed in the following chapter. The directly analysed collection also of chert pieces from Ballyconneelly, Co. Galway sees where there clear parallels as seen in the distinctive scrapers akin to those from Roughan Hill are clearly indicated. Ballyconneely (DL1 False Bay) Co. Galway (Early Bronze Age Midden site) This small collection of mostly finished and obvious looking artefacts of chert was recovered from a rescue excavation of this coastal location (McCormick et al 1996). Some pottery sherds were recovered along with a small collection of chert artefacts (information courtesy of McCormick on behalf of Queen s University Belfast, Department of Archaeology and Palaeoecology). These probably date the collection to the period just prior to 2000 BC and as late as 1800 BC based upon the sherds being of the Vase Tradition. This small lithic collection was recorded directly by the present writer. Out of 17 pieces 13 were chert sub-circular types including two blanks. There were multiple small rounded scrapers which made up most of the assemblage akin to the formal lithic types found within Roughan Hill, Co. Clare. The main artefact is in the form of neat chert sub-circular scrapers and these are directly comparable both in terms of morphology and metrical attributes to many of the sub-circular types from the scraper types from both settlements at Roughan Hill, Co. Clare. The dimensions are very similar to the chert scrapers from the Beaker/Early Bronze Age site and reflect the similar morphology of Beaker and Early Bronze Age scrapers in general (Figure 24). This tool dominated assemblage also contained a finely flaked chert hollow based arrowhead (Figure 25). The hollow based arrowhead is of the same class as that from Roughan Hill, but it has a more pronounced hollow area. 58

59 Figure 24: Vase Tradition chert sub-circular (thumbnail) chert scrapers from the Midden site at Ballyconneely (False Bay DL1, Co. Galway). Figure 25: Ballyconneely (DL1 False Bay) Co. Galway chert hollow based arrowhead. An explanation of the main technology employed from the earliest phases of the Irish metal era. As this survey continues to outline the nature of Beaker and Early Bronze Age domestic lithic assemblages as seen from the direct analysis and written sources, which will be reviewed further on, it will become clear that the technology of the use of highly localised lithic resources, the production of tools via the bipolar reduction technique and the use of unmodified suitable pieces along with the general paucity of platform reduction technology identified within the Roughan Hill assemblages are mirrored within most other Beaker and Bronze Age collections. There are slight variations between the more formal tools of scrapers, arrowheads etc, otherwise these assemblages remain almost identical in their approach to lithic reduction and production of tool forms. It is therefore important to see the assemblages just outlined from Roughan Hill, 59

60 Co. Clare and Leedaun I, Co. Mayo, both employing chert that the patterns of lithic procurement and use are broadly similar to contemporaneous assemblages noted in the literature and the many other directly analysed examples of domestic assemblages dating to the Middle and Late Bronze Age period which are presented in the following chapter. Essentially, bipolar reduction, the use of localised lithic material whether it be quartz, chert or flint, or a combination thereof, is the mainstay technology employed at these sites. The problem is that beyond more recognisable scraper forms, most of the tools are so informal, that they require close inspection in order to truly assess their merit as usable/functional tools. It is important to bear in mind that this is the period when, apart from the metal axe, most other tools of metal would not be suitable at this early stage in the Bronze Age to replace in any significant manner the everyday domestic stone technology. Therefore, in order for households to continue to function, they must have relied upon stone to create usable day-to-day tools. Supporting evidence from the written record - Beaker assemblages The evidence presented below from the written record, which generally supports the evidence assessed this far within the directly analysed assemblages of the Beaker and Early Bronze Age show comparable scraper forms, arrowheads, stone axes and in some cases recycled material, as well as evidence for bipolar reduction (nonplatform) assemblages, the use of localised lithic resources and the general clues to similar expedient use of bipolar material for tools. The important factor when reading these reports is to note the fairly minimal presence of platform reduction indicated even if bipolar reduced material is not explicitly stated, that based upon the direct assessment of bipolar dominated assemblages and the resultant tools (used implements) found within Irish domestic collections dating from the Beaker, Early Bronze Age and Middle Bronze Age period, that the documented lithic collections dating to the new metal era should also contain fairly similar lithic technologies. In some most instances, scalar technology/split pebble reduction and/or a high incidence of chunks and broken pieces are noted within reports; this will be seen further on within this survey. Occasionally bipolar reduction is explicitly noted and these sites combined with the other terms and descriptions indicating bipolar reduction therefore suggest that it is also highly probable that these collections indicated within the literature contain more tool forms than previously recognised. If these bipolar tools were recorded alongside the range of scrapers, occasional arrowhead and/or stone axes which are 60

61 frequently identified within these same assemblages; this would therefore begin to fill out the overall tool class categories within these sites; and would presumably begin to reflect the similar array of functional, albeit fairly unconventional, tools established within the direct analysis of Beaker/Bronze Age domestic collections detailed above within the direct analysis. The literature combined with the direct analysis of assemblages dating from the period c BC clearly shows the commonality of hollow based arrowheads within early contexts of the new metal era and the fact that no certain stratigraphic association of hollow based arrowheads could be made within pre-metallurgical contexts for this projectile (O Hare 2005) lends good support for them being a Beaker/Bronze Age diagnostic helping to resolve some of the stratigraphic problems indicated within some sites. Furthermore, when taken in combination: barbed and tangs, hollow based arrowheads, sub-circular type scrapers (domed) and evidence of ad hoc tools and/or bipolar/split pebble technology, along with a general absence of conventional platform reduction: the lithic assemblages speak for themselves i.e. they are most likely Beaker/Bronze Age in date. Sites names prefaced by * refer to the collections which have been directly analysed by the present writer as above. These sites will be included below to draw parallels with the lithic technology recorded in written sources. Ross Island, Co. Kerry (Beaker copper mine with some domestic activity) A very small lithic collection was recovered from the domestic activity associated with a copper mine at Ross Island, Co. Kerry (O Brien 1992, 1993, 1994 and 2004; lithics: McCartan 1999). Although this very small lithic collection is associated with a copper mine, there was no actual evidence of metal tool production. This is the case with all of the other Beaker domestic collections which will be reviewed below, where instead lithic material is the only indication of tool production at these sites. Overall, the lack of conventional platform reduction at this site is worth noting and the fact that bipolar technique is indicated indirectly when described by McCartan as a scalar type (1999, 2), which is an interchangeable term often employed in the context of Irish lithic studies to describe bipolar technology, lends further support to the common occurrence of this fairly arbitrary technology identified within non-secular collections of the earlier metal era. 61

62 Other more obvious technology commonly seen within earlier metal era contexts is also associated with this site. For example, distinctive sub-circular type scrapers were recovered (Figure 26) along with a hollow-based arrowhead. As can be seen from the direct assessment of Beaker and Early Bronze Age lithic collections, these formal lithic types are fairly common within this period. For example, on a small scale, the Ross Island collection reflects the mainstay technology established from the direct analysis of *Farmstead 1, Roughan Hill, on the Burren, Co. Clare. Figure 26: Beaker flint sub-circular scrapers from Ross Island, Co. Kerry (after Crone courtesy of the Ulster Museum, Belfast). Figure 27: Flint hollow based arrowhead from Ross Island, Co. Kerry (No. 92E0081: 330) (after Crone courtesy of the Ulster Museum, Belfast). McCartan (1999) notes that from 18 pieces and there were three definite flint scrapers and one possible scraper fragment; these are sub-circular types, which mirror the morphology of the chert scrapers from *Roughan Hill in being characterised by steep, abrupt and semi-abrupt flaking. Moreover, these compare very well both metrically as well as morphologically with the Beaker scrapers from Ross Island where their average was 17x19x4.6mm (N=3), which when compared with the much larger sample of chert scrapers with a mean of 16x16x6mm (N=188) 62

63 from *Roughan Hill, Co. Clare, is remarkably similar. These morphologically and dimensionally distinctive scrapers are in evidence within the Irish record for the Beaker period, although not from funerary contexts. Other Beaker sites show evidence of both bipolar/split pebble reduction and often scraper forms approximating rounded types along with the occasional arrowhead. There were two chert hollow based arrowheads (Nos. 95E061, 156 and 157) found associated with this farmstead. The Ross Island hollow based arrowhead is of flint (Figure 27) and the Roughan Hill arrowheads are of chert, number 156 from Roughan Hill compares very well with the Ross Island specimen and the Ross Island arrowhead was accompanied by very similar sub-circular scrapers to those described above. Ballynagilly, Co. Tyrone (Beaker domestic activity) ApSimon also highlights the presence of the predominance of small convex scrapers within the Bell Beaker assemblage from Ballynagilly, Co. Tyrone, (1976, 22, 27). This site also revealed several Beaker type barbed and tanged arrowheads from sites G, L, and M, according to Green s catalogue (1980). Green also notes the presence of three hollow-based arrowheads associated with the rusticated Beakers from sites G (Green 1980, 405, nos. 455 and 455/1). Again these arrowhead forms are reflected in many other Beaker sites along with the typical array of sub-circular type scrapers. There is no other information regarding the site from the literature that would aid the interpretation of the other material of which there was much, but presumably, if this collection could be accessed directly at some point: it would most certainly turn out to reflect the directly analysed assemblages and descriptions given in the literature regarding the more expedient lithic technology. Knowth Concentrations A E, Co, Meath (Beaker domestic activity) For instance, another Beaker site: the Beaker concentrations (Eogan 1984; Eogan and Roche 1997; lithics by Dillon 1997) are noted as showing a high frequency of fragmentary pieces, chunks and non-descript unmodified pieces and the most pertinent aspect of these concentrations appears to be the lack of platform reduction material (Eogan 1984, 271). Regarding one of the Beaker concentrations within Knowth, Eogan states that Two-thirds of the assemblage consists of waste material, mainly small pieces and scrap No definite cores have survived (ibid) and the assemblage from Concentration [C] is described by Eogan as: the flint was of poor quality and derived chiefly from pebbles (1984, 271). 63

64 These descriptions seems to imply the use of bipolar/split-pebble reduction and the absence of platform technology, which would correlate very closely with the findings from the directly analyzed lithic material of a similar period as outlined above. Further support of the bipolar reduction method being employed rather than platform reduction is given by Dillon regarding Beaker Concentration [E], where some lithic material is clearly indicated as being reduced via bipolar technology and the largest group within the overall assemblage were unutilised flakes and fragments (1997, 254), which typically another feature of Beaker/Bronze Age assemblages as borne out in the direct assessments. However, Dillon does note the presence of a handful of platform cores (nos ) from this same concentration (1997, 238); although this is still a marginal component compared to the otherwise seemingly bipolar reduced material. In relation to the more expedient tools there is further support given in the observations by Dillon regarding these same concentrations at the Knowth Beaker concentrations as discussed above in the context of the seeming use of bipolar reduction and a paucity of platform technology within these sites, Dillon points out that: Suitable flakes appear to have been selected and slightly modified to suit a particular function (1997, 241). Other tool types from these concentrations where a number of utilised flakes with some split pebbles and a considerable variety in the unworked pieces: some are tiny fragments while others are crude lumps were recovered (Eogan 1984, 248). This certainly begins to reflect the expedient nature of the essentially bipolar reduced domestic assemblages and the production of ad hoc tools identified within the directly analysed lithic assemblages dating to the broader Beaker/Early Bronze Age period described thus far. The descriptions given above of the Beaker lithic technology from the Knowth site, certainly is highly suggestive of essentially bipolar produced technology, although, as noted earlier, as this reduction technology is so poorly understood and the resultant material being employed is so very often not even recognised as functional, this means that this technology is typically not explicitly described as bipolar within written sources and the importance of the assemblages functionality is therefore overlooked. In terms of more obvious tool form, scrapers of the Grooved Ware period (Final/Late Neolithic) in Ireland show a distinctive pattern between the Neolithic 64

65 and Bronze Age convex scrapers discussed thus far. For instance, Dillon makes a distinction between the Neolithic scrapers and those from the Beaker concentrations within the same general site at Knowth, Co. Meath, in the following: Scrapers are common but large examples, which are typical in Grooved Ware contexts, do not occur (1997, 254). Information gleaned from Eogan s scraper dimensions from various sites dating from different periods around the Boyne Valley appear to parallel the studies in Britain. Although this dimensional information is illustrated in Eogan (1984, Table B), he does not advocate any significant dimensional variability between the various scraper populations from these different periods. He includes scraper dimensions for the Neolithic sites from Townleyhall, Co. Louth (Middle Neolithic), and Knowth, Co. Meath (General Neolithic), along with the mainly Beaker material from Site C also from Knowth. The graphs on closer inspection seem to indicate that the Beaker scrapers are not only smaller and thicker than the Neolithic scrapers, but that they appear to have more restricted dimensions compared to the wider variation of dimensions for the Neolithic types. Most of the Knowth Beaker group had lengths of 30mm or less, whereas, the majority of lengths for the Middle Neolithic site at Townleyhall and the Knowth Neolithic group are greater than this. Another diagram in Eogan (1984, Table C) shows the scraper dimensions for the predominantly Beaker concentrations A-D. Again, the scrapers from the Beaker concentrations from Knowth appear to have a much greater tendency towards smaller and thicker dimensions with a more restricted range and therefore greater standardisation. They are generally as broad as they are long approaching a length/breadth ratio of 1:1. Eogan s diagrams at least have shed some light on this aspect of the study for some of the Irish material. Again, Dillon s observations regarding the scrapers from the Beaker concentrations at Knowth, where she states: Scrapers are common but large examples, which are typical in Grooved Ware contexts, do not occur (1997, 254), highlights the distinctive scrapers forms of the Beaker period. Dillon specifically describes and highlights the distinctive character of the predominant round scrapers or thumbnail scraper within the Beaker contexts from the Knowth site (1997, 228). Some of these same type scrapers are described and illustrated by Dillon (1997, , fig. 33) and these, in turn are seen within the survey of broadly contemporaneous lithic collections that are reviewed above. 65

66 Figure 28: Barbed and tanged with broken tang classified as Green Low by Dillon (1997, 251) from Beaker concentration [E] (after Dillon 1997 fig. 54, 8472). It is also worth reiterating the evidence for ad hoc technology and hints of bipolar reduction seen within the Knowth site and the fact that other more formal technology found within the Beaker concentrations are also reflecting in most of the sites reviewed thus far. The lithics report and site report in general for Knowth, Beaker concentrations highlight the presence of two early type barbed and tanged arrowheads and within Beaker concentration [A], a fine hollow-based arrowhead was recovered (see Eogan 1984, fig. 87, no. 1064). The Beaker concentrations [E] and [C] at Knowth, Co. Meath, contained two flint-barbed and tanged types; one barbed and tanged is classified as a Green Low by Dillon (1997, 251) according to Green s scheme (1980, 123, fig. 46) (Figure 28), the other looks like a Sutton b (Eogan 1984, fig. 99, No. 1707) employing Green s scheme (1980, fig. 45). Ballingoola, Co. Limerick (Beaker context with poor stratigraphy) Some tentative evidence of axe manufacturing relating to contemporaneous Beaker sites can be seen at Ballingoola, Co. Limerick where, several stone axe fragments possibly indicative of manufacture but uncertain (Mac Dermott 1949). Once again the stratigraphy was problematic at this site, however, one important point regarding the survival in several sites throughout the Bronze Age period in Ireland of polished stone axes is that these should be viewed in the context of their proportion within any settlement material of the prehistoric period; i.e., they typically only account for a small proportion within otherwise large collections of every day lithic production. Several stone axes and paraphernalia for stone axe production have been identified within other sites dating to the Beaker period, although these are non-domestic and may represent ritual deposits (O Hare 2005). 66

67 Also found within the Beaker settlement site at Ballingoola, Co. Limerick, were two barbed and tanged arrowheads, which Green classifies as Sutton types (1980). No scrapers are noted but this assemblage. The *Roughan Hill collection dating to between the Beaker and Early Bronze Age period contained some evidence of axe manufacturing and/or the use of stone axes along with two hollow-based arrowheads commonly associated with Beaker type barbed and tanged arrowheads. Grange, Co. Limerick (possible Beaker domestic activity within a stone circle) This Beaker domestic assemblage did not contain any arrowheads, although a number of split-pebble scrapers are noted which are essentially the same as subcircular types as is the case from the Grange stone circle, Co. Limerick, (Ó Ríordáin 1951, fig. 3, nos. 1 and 2) showed that within the stone circle, the interior of this may represent domestic activity where there was a relatively discrete Beaker concentration associated with a flint and chert lithic assemblage and judging by the excavation report: this appears to have a significant portion of sub-circular scraper types. Corlea 6, Co. Longford (Beaker trackway) A clear example of the direct association between the use of stone axes alongside metal blades datable to the Beaker period can be seen at Corlea 6, Co. Longford. This trackway showed evidence of being worked by metal axes as well as stone blades, as O Sullivan draws attention to the fact that some of the wood have short, concave facets, in which the wood is more crushed than cut these worked ends are quite similar to those of the Neolithic trackways, indicating that at least a few stone axes were used (1996, 314). Therefore, metal would certainly have a technological advantage in terms of usage at this time. For example, support for this argument may be seen in Ireland s earliest evidence to-date of the use of metal axes found at Corlea 6, Co. Longford, where the wood was dendro-dated to c BC as noted by O Sullivan (1996, 312, fig. 441). It does therefore appear that the advent of the metal axe is contemporary with the largest trackway yet built in the Irish bogs. O Sullivan also notes that it is likely that metal axes made large tree-felling a less arduous task (1996, 341). Figure 29 illustrates the distinct difference between wood worked by a stone blade compared to that of metal. 67

68 Figure 29: Timbers from Corlea 6 with stone blade cuts (above) and timbers cut using metal blades (below) (after O Sullivan 1996, figs. 409 and 433). Dalkey, Co. Dublin (Beaker middens) The report from the Beaker site at Dalkey, Co. Dublin, illustrates a number of arrowhead types of both the barbed and tanged and hollow-based variety (Liversage 1968: fig. 24, no. 673), and again the main scraper forms appear to be rounded types. As highlighted above, the present writer encountered problems when it came to recording the assemblage directly for the purpose of the original Irish Bronze Age lithic study. Broomfield/ Ballyboghil, site A, Co. Dublin (Beaker site) Other discrete Beaker collections are described in the literature that appears to be also describing bipolar technology. Another Beaker collection from Broomfield/ Ballyboghil, site A, Co. Dublin, is described as producing scrapers made from splitpebbles (O Brien 1988). As noted above, split-pebble reduction is essentially the same as bipolar technology. No information regarding more formal lithic types has 68

69 been noted in the report. Cloghers II, Co. Kerry (Beaker site) Further evidence of expedient technology and specifically that of bipolar reduction is noted for the Beaker assemblage (Licence No. 00E0065: Kiely 2000; 2002: lithics report by Finlay 2001a). This Beaker habitation assemblage was fairly small and flint based. It was dominated by unmodified flint flake debitage in the form of flakes and chunks and Finlay indicates the fact that there were no cores identified. She also explicitly suggests bipolar technique was employed as evidenced on some flakes and chunks (2001a). Potentially fruitful assemblages for future research Newgrange, Co. Meath (Irish Grooved Ware Late Neolithic & Beaker material mixed) One site that appears at first glance to show a continuity between the Late Neolithic and Beaker period is known as Newgrange, Co. Meath (O Kelly et al 1983) where, an abundance of lithic material was recovered associated with Late Neolithic Grooved Wares and Beaker Wares of the earlier metal in the vicinity of a well known passage tomb of the pre-grooved Ware era. However, a number of points regarding this site can be made which would tend to militate against the material spanning the Neolithic/Beaker boundary For instance, a reassessment of the stratigraphy within the Newgrange site lends good support to suggest two distinctive phases and functions for this site as outlined by Eogan and Roche (1999). They reconsider the chronology of Grooved Ware in relation to Beaker at the Newgrange complex and state: it is proposed here that the Grooved Ware assemblage at Newgrange, as at Knowth, post-dates the passage tomb activity and pre-dates the Beaker complex, Grooved Ware being contemporary with the large pit circle and an early phase of the extensive habitation layer, and Beaker pottery being contemporary with a later habitation phase and possibly with the stone circle (1999, 105). Potentially, therefore, by applying the system of recording lithics as outlined above to the Newgrange lithic collection as a whole, these technologies could be identified within their respective phases of Final Neolithic and Beaker. For instance, 69

70 there are clear examples of non-neolithic arrowhead forms at Newgrange, which are more akin to lithic forms found within Beaker/Early Bronze Age collections, such as those indicated and illustrated by: O Kelly and Shell 1979; O Kelly et al 1983; Lehane 1983 and Sweetman 1985 and 1987). Some of these are classified by Green as early types of barbed and tanged and hollow-based arrowheads (1980, 98, fig. 22, no. E56: 89), which are clearly associated with other Beaker/Early Bronze Age assemblages surveyed above. Conversely, the arrowhead forms more typically associated with Grooved Ware assemblages of the transverse variety (illustrated by Lehan 1983) are quite distinct from Beaker/Early Bronze Age forms. Furthermore, scrapers are also highly distinct between the Final Neolithic and Beaker/Early Bronze Age period as highlighted in Woodman and Scannell s observation of these forms found within Newgrange, state that: many of the scrapers were larger than the classic small invasively retouched scrapers which are usually considered typical of the Bronze Age (1993, 55). If the Newgrange lithic collection could be re-examined in the light of the emerging evidence for distinctive formal tools/weapons and the more expedient (used) tools and bipolar/split-pebble reduction techniques, that seem to be employed almost exclusively, within domestic collections of the new metal era and these could be separated from the platform technology, then some sense and separation may be possible with these lithic technologies within their respective prehistoric phases. Lough Gur, Co. Limerick (Mixed Neolithic/Beaker and Bronze Age material) Another important Irish site may have contributed to the notion of continuity between Neolithic and Beaker material can be seen within the region of Lough Gur, Co. Limerick. As the excavation by Ó Ríordáin (1954) and reassessment of the complex array of sites by Grogan and Eogan (1987) clearly shows: there is also a fairly large amount of Neolithic material seemingly intermixed with Beaker Wares and pottery spanning the entire Bronze Age period. Excavations and re-evaluations and assessments of abundant material from Lough Gur, Co. Limerick, (Ó Ríordáin 1954; Grogan and Eogan 1987; lithics: Woodman and Scannell 1993) indicates a significant array of Beaker/Bronze Age pottery and other material associated with many of the multiple sites from this regions, but unfortunately, although there are high concentrations in some areas of 70

71 these sites of Beaker/Bronze Age pottery, Woodman and Scannell (1993) found the separation of the lithic material difficult to say the least (1993). Interestingly, however, several hollow-based arrowheads, Beaker type barbed and tanged types and sub-circular scrapers are illustrated as occurring together at several sites with Beaker ceramic concentrations around Lough Gur, Co. Limerick, (Ó Ríordáin 1954 and Grogan and Eogan 1987, 312; fig. 4 nos and Scannell 1992). Also, judging by the site reports and re-evaluations (Ó Ríordáin 1954; Grogan and Eogan 1987). Furthermore, Woodman and Scannell have also identified a tentative correlation between the higher frequency of bipolar technology described as split-pebble/scalar technology within some sites containing a predominance of Bronze Age ceramics (1993, 43, table 6:3). This combined with the association of distinctive Bronze Age type stone scrapers (domed/sub-circular) and arrowhead forms (hollow based and barbed and tanged types) tend to indicate some distinct non-neolithic artefacts that are more akin to those established by the present writer as associated with Beaker/Bronze Age forms from less problematic contexts, may lend support to the idea that although, the separation of Neolithic stone technology from Bronze Age forms within the Lough Gur sites is highly problematic as indicated by Woodman and Scannell (1993), it is possible that these lithics could now be re-evaluated in the light of a better defined typology for Beaker/Bronze Age lithics as a result of this present study. Supporting evidence from the written record Early Bronze Age assemblages Coolroe/Claremorris region, Co. Mayo (fulachta fiadh Early Bronze Age and possibly later) The *Leedaun I, Co. Mayo dating to the Early Bronze Age period which produced a small bipolar dominated chert assemblage, within the same region several other chert assemblages were recovered (Information courtesy of Gillespie and Walsh on behalf of Mayo County Council; lithics by Finlay 1998; 1999; 2000b and 2000c). These sites around the Coolroe/Claremorris region, Co. Mayo, are described by the lithic specialist as chert-based, bipolar produced assemblages and in keeping with the general Bronze Age dates assigned to the other sites in the area 71

72 (Finlay 2000b; 2000c). As most of the lithic material seems to be derived from fulachta fiadh type contexts, these are potentially important for future investigation as they may relate to the latter phase of this period now under review, if not later than that period as indicated in the date ranges for these type of features (see Brindley et al 1989/1990 for date range of these sites in Ireland). Stepaside, Co. Dublin (Early Bronze Age site) Although the literature is limited regarding such Early Bronze Age settlements, this does not mean that the evidence is lacking as the direct analysis of domestic collections from this period has shown and domestic evidence from the end of the period onwards is quite prolific in Ireland, indicating either an increase in population and activity or that the lithic material from this period was simply more readily available than the earlier era. There is more detailed evidence which has emerged from within the literature that conforms to much of the directly analyzed assemblages thus far reviewed from a fairly large lithic collection from Stepaside. (Reid 1998 and Finlay 1998), (Information was courtesy of Reid on behalf of Valerie Keeley Ltd., Lithics report by N. Finlay 1998a). This Early Bronze Age collection was mainly from the topsoil, but fairly homogenous and associated with a roundhouse structure with a radiocarbon date of BC (Reid 1998). The Stepaside assemblage is described as: dominated by debitage in the form of bipolar/split pebble reduction and out of the mainly flint pieces with some chert totally 369 (Finlay 1998a). This Early Bronze Age collection contained several scrapers, although the specific form is not noted. A hollow-based arrowhead (97E467:1:1) was also recovered. The report would therefore indicate that the primary technology accounted for 80 per cent of the total assemblage. This is more akin to the *Roughan Hill (Farmstead 1) proportion of primary (bipolar reduction) material to finished tools (secondary technology) and in terms of the hollow-based arrowhead along with presumably sub-circular type scrapers reflect the more formal artefacts found at Roughan Hill, Co. Clare. Glendhu, Co, Down (Early Bronze Age coastal collection intermixed with significantly earlier industry) Another seeming contemporary assemblage of the broader Vase Tradition consists of a large flint collection relating in part to the Vase Tradition commencing at around 2000 BC which was recovered from Glendhu, Co. Down. This is a coastal collection intermixed with significantly earlier industry and much disturbed collection, although overall split-pebble flint technology is clearly indicated as a 72

73 sizable component of this collection. Unfortunately as this collection was very mixed with significantly earlier industry and much disturbed collection (Woodman 1985), it could not be analysed directly as part of this study, but there are similarities with other collections that were recorded directly, although personal observation of some of the material indicated a quantity of split-pebble pieces approximating scrapers, i.e. rounded types. Whitepark Bay, Co. Antrim (possibly Early Bronze Age) Within a habitation layer of another coastal site within the sand dunes of Whitepark Bay, Co. Antrim, a flint hollow-based arrowhead was recovered (Find description in Anon., 1928, 188). This appears to be associated with sherds of vase type pottery (ApSimon 1969) and the arrowhead is also catalogued as of that tradition by Green (1980, 397, no. 429/11) and reflects a similar contexts and arrowhead form from the potentially contemporaneous chert collection from. *Ballyconneely (DL1 False Bay), Co. Galway, analyzed directly by the present writer. Rathbane South, Co. Limerick (Early Bronze Age fulacht fiadh) Another hollow-based arrowhead, also of chert and is quite triangular in form with a very shallow base was derived from excavations at Rathbane South, Co. Limerick, (O Donovan 2000, ). This arrowhead was associated with fulachta fiadh material and a C14 date was obtained c BC (O Donovan IAPA conference 2002). Overview of technology dating from the Beaker to the Early Bronze Age period from the written record and direct analysis The direct analysis of chert lithic collections from the settlements from *Roughan Hill on the Burren spanning the Beaker into the Early Bronze Age period, and the Leedaun, I, Co. Mayo chert based collection dating to the Early Bronze Age period, demonstrate the use of bipolar reduction technique from the earliest stages of the metal era. Furthermore, these collections employ highly localised lithic material and produced a great deal of bipolar pieces which seemed to have been employed for various tasks, irrespective of whether they were employed simply as they were without much modification as seen within the *Roughan Hill assemblages or predominantly flaked bipolar reduced pieces as seen within the *Leedaun I assemblage. 73

74 Moreover, platform technology seems almost obsolete at these early sites dating to the beginning of the first age of metallurgy. This is important to bear in mind as the domestic assemblages at this time would be expected to continue in their traditional procurement, reduction and use of stone technology, given the limited range of available metal tools suitable to replace these at this time. Therefore, the abundant lithic material, which is often described as fragmentary, sometimes referred to more explicitly bipolar reduced and as the direct assessment has shown: the Beaker and Early Bronze Age domestic assemblages employ, for whatever reason, bipolar reduction to create usable lithic pieces along with more formal scraper types, the occasional well manufactured and distinctive arrowheads of Beaker/Early Bronze Age forms as also reflected within the *Roughan Hill assemblage from *Farmstead,I and the scrapers from *Farmstead II, and the scraper dominated assemblage and the arrowhead from *Ballyconneely, Co. Galway, which may represent a dislocated collection of tools, rather than an in-situ habitation area. As noted above, the *Leedaun collection showed a different approach to the use of tools produced via the bipolar process in showing more basically flaked forms than those from *Roughan Hill; although both collections are essentially bipolar produced and expedient and are very different to earlier (pre-metallurgical) collections. There was a number of rounded type scrapers recovered from within the *Leedaun assemblage, which were cruder than those from *Roughan Hill, otherwise the results from the direct analysis are supported by the information that can be gleaned from other domestic collections identified within the study both from written and direct assessment from the earliest until the latest phases of the Irish Bronze Age. Furthermore, the early assemblages of the new metal era serve to demonstrate that Irish domestic lithic technology is highly expedient from the very start of the new metal era. This is further supported by the Beaker and Early Bronze Age sites showing similar technologies, a lack of platform reduction technologies and descriptions that strongly point to similar bipolar reduction. The fact that several assemblages, particularly dating to the Beaker period as indicated in the literature clearly show bipolar/split pebble reduction technologies must also have associated ad hoc (bipolar) use tools which have not been recognised due to the difficulties outlined earlier. By applying the criteria applied in this study of the handling, use marks on working edge where natural agencies could not have 74

75 caused these and the morphology of a piece to identify a tool could be employed. Within some of the literature such as from the Knowth, Co. Meath, excavations of the Beaker concentrations, there are strong hints of such technology akin to that established from the direct examination of Beaker and Early Bronze Age assemblages. The burial record from the earliest part of the Bronze Age proper within Ireland demonstrates the use of highly localised lithic material; bipolar reduction, rounded type scrapers and a number of formal, highly crafted objects of flint not found within domestic sites. However, arrowheads of the Bronze Age variety are not deliberately deposited within graves at this time. The interesting part of the funerary assemblages was being able to assess bipolar technology employed on other lithic material, besides chert. Essentially quartz demands bipolar reduction as it does not conchoidal fracture like flint, chert and obsidian (the latter material is not a nature resource in Ireland). The flint material was essentially the same in its fracture patterns to that of the chert from the early domestic assemblages, except that it typically exhibited larger overall dimensions compared to chert. The bipolar assemblages from the post-early Bronze Age period assessed below confirm this pattern as the flint assemblages exhibited similar dimensions to the bipolar flint assemblages from burials of the earlier period. Formal, well flaked rounded scrapers also form part of the funerary goods during the Early Bronze Age period, although rounded, but more ad hoc scraper forms are also known from funerary contexts. Regarding the more recognisable tools, such as the hollow-based arrowheads and the scrapers from *Roughan Hill, which in the case of the scrapers are sub-circular forms, and typically exhibited fairly similar attributes such as very steep retouch in the form of negative scars on the dorsal, domed convex part of the piece. Overall, the *Roughan Hill scrapers are fairly standardised types both in terms of morphology and dimensions and conform to the Beaker flint types from Ross Island, Co. Kerry, and the hollow-based arrowhead from the same site. These formal items are in turn seen within the Early Bronze Age period such as those identified within the *Ballyconneely, Co. Galway, midden collection directly assessed by the writer and in turn reflect formal aspects of assemblages recorded within the literature of the Early Bronze Age period. 75

76 The other main formal lithic type, although a lot less prolific compared to scrapers, is the arrowhead. Within Beaker contexts hollow-based arrowheads are as frequent, if not more so than certain sub-classes of barbed and tanged arrowheads. Neither of these arrowhead forms has convincing pre-metallurgical associations in the context of Ireland (O Hare 2005). The barbed and tanged arrowheads (early types according to Green s scheme 1980) do not appear to be a feature of post-beaker domestic assemblages, where instead: hollow-based forms are quite frequent. As it will be seen in the discussion of later assemblages which follows, arrowheads of all varieties of barbed and tanged forms and hollow-based types seem to occur fairly regularly within settlements, but not in the same regularity as the Beaker and Early Bronze Age period. The main artefact is in the form of neat chert sub-circular scrapers, which appear to be specific to the Beaker/Bronze Age toolkit and are quite distinct to premetallurgical scraper forms. These Beaker/Early Bronze Age forms are directly comparable both in terms of morphology and metrical attributes to many of the subcircular types from the scraper types from the settlements dating to the Beaker and Early Bronze Age at *Roughan Hill, Co. Clare and in turn the Ross Island, Co Kerry Beaker scrapers. The dimensions are also very similar to the chert scrapers from *Roughan Hill and reflect the similar morphology as well as the morphology and dimensions identified within the chert scraper dominated assemblage from the Early Bronze Age midden site at *Ballyconneely, Co. Galway. The general descriptions and illustrations given within the literature regarding several Beaker collections again appear to match the morphology of the sub-circular type scrapers noted above. For instance, even though some sites dating particularly to the Beaker period were problematic for a number of reasons, most of these collections do note and often illustrate more formal lithic pieces, such as seen within a number of sites with a predominance of Beaker pottery from the Lough Gur region, which showed frequent association of typical rounded scrapers and characteristic arrowhead forms of the earlier metal era as identified within lithic reports and from the direct assessment of lithic material dating to this period. Regarding the above assessment and indeed, the in depth study of all lithic forms from burials, hoards, ritual deposits and domestic contexts from the earlier doctoral study (O Hare 2005), it can be stated that: no arrowheads of Bronze Age types were associated with burials of the Bowl or the later Vase Tradition instead, arrowheads in this period appear to have a purely domestic association. It should be 76

77 said that sub-circular and crude type scrapers which are distinct within the domestic collections of the new metal era are also present in fairly high numbers within funerary contexts, although these are not specifically included in this present assessment due to the focus of this study, they will hopefully be dealt with in more detail in a future publication. Both sub-circular scrapers and certain distinctive stone arrowheads continue to be associated with the period commencing around 2000 BC within domestic contexts which will be seen below. The main difference between the formal tools within the Beaker and Early Bronze Age period seems to be the presence of both hollow-based arrowheads and certain forms of barbed and tanged arrowheads within the Beaker settlements and the exclusive use of hollow-based arrowheads within the Early Bronze Age settlements as indicated from the direct analysis and written sources. Basically, these scrapers characterise the main scraper type-fossil of the Beaker and Earlier Bronze Age in Ireland which is demonstrated above. Furthermore, rounded and subcircular type scrapers are not generally a feature of Neolithic assemblages and are therefore distinct within the Irish Beaker/Bronze Age period as the rest of this survey will demonstrate. In addition to the more formal type scrapers, the two arrowheads (hollow-based types) found within *Roughan Hill at Farmstead I, is not known from secure contexts within the Neolithic period (O Hare 2005) and therefore is fairly characteristic of Beaker/Bronze Age technology. As the *Roughan Hill collections span the Beaker and Early Bronze Age period, it was not possible to refine these contexts employing lithic diagnostics as the lithic technology in the form of bipolar/split-pebble reduction, the use of ad hoc (informal tools); rounded scrapers and the occasional arrowhead in the form of hollow-based and/or barbed and tanged varieties is common within most Irish assemblages of the Beaker and Early Bronze Age period. It is only the presence of certain types of barbed and tanged arrowheads within early assemblages which would indicate a Beaker date rather than an Early Bronze Age date. For example, hollow-based arrowhead forms along with certain sub-classes of barbed and tanged arrowheads are a clear feature of Beaker assemblages along with sub-circular type scrapers as the review of Beaker material from written sources will show further on. However, barbed and tanged arrowheads have not been identified in direct association with the post-beaker assemblages of the Early Bronze Age period whereas, hollow-based arrowheads are fairly common and again found associated with rounded type scrapers akin to those from Roughan Hill. This will be 77

78 seen within the review of Early Bronze Age collections both identified within the direct analysis below and the written sources outlined further on. In other words, the hollow-based arrowhead is common within Beaker contexts in Ireland and found frequently with early forms of barbed and tanged arrowheads and typically rounded, sub-circular type scrapers. However, during the Early Bronze Age period, the barbed and tanged arrowhead is notable for its absence within the post-beaker domestic assemblages, but the hollow-based arrowhead is clearly a common feature of Early Bronze Age domestic assemblages. The polished stone axe may or may not belong to the Beaker period of the *Roughan Hill settlement, although parallels for the use of the stone axe alongside metal types have been found at Corlea, Co. Longford, Beaker trackway; the association of polished stone axes with Beaker ritual material is fairly frequent. The burial record for the Bowl Tradition period, overlapping and later than the Insular Beakers, has at least two associated polished stone axes and the evidence for domestic stone axes of the following period the Vase Tradition (c to 1900 BC) or sites with related dates is marginal. It would seem likely that the polished stone axes and portions found at *Roughan Hill, Co. Clare, in association with mainly Beaker ceramics is also of that date and perhaps lends further support to the mixed stratigraphy of the polished stone axe fragments found associated with mainly Beaker pottery from Lough Gur, Co. Limerick. Regarding the use of highly localised lithic materials, bipolar technology, the paucity of conventional platform technology and blade and formal flake forms. Along with the production of ad hoc tools and paucity of formally flaked and retouched pieces, the evidence is clear from the directly analyzed assemblages. This is further supported by the descriptions given within the literature relating to Beaker and Early Bronze Age collections. The unchanging expedient technology is clearly seen throughout the remainder of the Irish Bronze Age period which is reviewed below. The actual sites which were accessed directly dating to the post-1800 BC commencing at c BC were much more prolific than the earlier period and less problematic in terms of stratigraphy. These will be reviewing in the following chapter. It will be seen that after this assessment, that the scraper forms shift towards more expedient types; but remain quantitatively similar proportionately within assemblages. Formal tools still exist in small numbers such as arrowheads 78

79 and polished stone items and axes, along with re-used items from earlier times. Otherwise, these domestic assemblages remain fairly conservative from the earliest until the latest phases of the Bronze Age period. 79

80 Chapter Three - Chronological presentation of directly analysed and indirect assessment of domestic technology throughout the later metal era (c /600 BC) It is important to bear in mind that within the original lithic study of the Irish Bronze Age, a marked standardisation and rise in lithic craft specialisation was detected within the period now under review; although these were typically from funerary, ritual and hoard type contexts. Interestingly, the domestic settlement sites of the Developed Bronze Age (the end of the traditional Early Bronze Age into the Middle Bronze Age period), are only marginally more expedient, ad hoc and thoroughly opportunistic than their earlier domestic counterparts. This is discernible within a single implement class, namely: the scrapers. The scraper appears to become more robust and crude within the later industries compared to the more standardised and neat scraper forms reviewed above belonging to the earlier industries. As the survey includes mostly Middle and Late Bronze Age assemblages, this is perhaps somewhat surprising at a time when metalworking traditions are much more sophisticated and widespread than they were within the earlier phases of the Bronze Age. This chapter will take a similar format to the previous review of earlier contexts for lithic technology, commencing with directly analysed lithic assemblages, followed by information from written sources from which to make meaningful comparisons. It is worth noting that this later time-frame actually has a greater number of lithic collections and greater quantities of lithic material, from both directly analysed and written sources, than the previous phases just reviewed. This is presumably due to the fact that the latter phases of the Bronze Age have less stratigraphic and chronological issues than the earlier phases of the new metal era. This is attributable to the greater number of excavations carried out as a result of developer-led archaeology in more recent years and partly to do with the availability of more refined chronologies that have filled out the historical blanks within the Irish Later Bronze Age. 80

81 Directly analysed lithic collections of the Developed Bronze Age Leedaun II, Co. Mayo (Settlement BC) Leedaun II, Co. Mayo (Information courtesy of Walsh & Gillespie and corresponds to reports by Walsh 1999; Gillespie 1999; lithics report Anderson 2000) is a domestic site that produced a radiocarbon date range spanning the Derryniggin and Killymaddy metalworking periods, which straddle the end of the Early and beginning of the traditional Middle Bronze Age periods. This site is an adjacent settlement to *Leedaun I, Co. Mayo (Early Bronze Age), discussed in the previous chapter. The later collection from Leedaun II produced fairly similar proportions of primary reduction components to others assemblages throughout the Bronze Age period. The following analysis consists of a small chert assemblage of c. 100 analysed pieces from secure contexts from an original of c Primary technology The Leedaun, area II the primary assemblage was like the earlier and adjacent site, *Leedaun I, Co. Mayo, dominated by chert which is relatively abundant in the local environs of this region of Mayo. There was no metalworking at this site. The primary lithic assemblage accounts for 83 per cent of the total out of the 101 pieces from sealed contexts within the site. Out of the total primary pieces of 82, 63 per cent accounts for bipolar flakes, a mere 11 per cent bipolar cores and 26 per cent microdebitage. This was the main variation between these two chert assemblages derived from the same raw material resource. The earlier site had a much more proportioned range of primary technology in the form of bipolar cores, bipolar flakes and micro-debitage. The later site was dominated by bipolar flakes making up around two-thirds of the primary assemblage (Figure 30). This assemblage of the developed Bronze Age is more flakelike than the earlier assemblage from the adjacent site. 81

82 Composition of primary (reduction) technology (chert) from Leedaun, II, ( BC) (n=82) 26% 11% bipolar cores bipolar flakes micro-debitage platform 63% Figure 30: Pie chart showing Primary lithic components within Leedaun II, Co. Mayo Dimensions for primary technology The preferred size for bipolar cores from the earlier site at *Leedaun I, employing the same raw material was between <20 and <30mm, which is comparable to the dimensions for bipolar cores and bipolar flakes at Area II, the later site (Figure 31). The bipolar flakes from both sites, again showed a dimensional preference of <20mm for chert bipolar flakes; although the bipolar cores are rather sparse within the later assemblage compared to the earlier collection. These dimensions for bipolar pieces are akin to the chert bipolar pieces from *Roughan Hill, Co. Clare, dating to both the Beaker and Early Bronze Age period. 82

83 Leedaun, II bipolar dimensions (chert) bipolar flakes bipolar cores 0 Figure 31: Bar chart showing dimensions for bipolar pieces from Leedaun II, Co. Mayo Secondary technology (tools) The chert lithic material from Leedaun II, Co. Mayo, produced a smaller assemblage derived from the sealed area compared to *Leedaun I. What is interesting is that the secondary technology from the later site at Leedaun II (corresponding to the end of the traditional Early Bronze Age and early part of the traditional Middle Bronze Age) is that there is a higher ratio of secondary technology from Leedaun II, at 17 per cent compared to the tool category at the earlier site. There is also a significantly lower incidence of bipolar cores at the later site (Area II) compared to the earlier site which may be accounted for by the higher incidence of utilised pieces seen within Leedaun II, compared to the earlier site (Area I). At area II, the bipolar cores appear to have been utilised more frequently, thereby, becoming part of the informal tool category, whereas at the earlier site they had a tendency to remain as debitage as part of the bipolar reduction process (Figure 32). 83

84 Composition of secondary (tools) technology from Leedaun II ( BC) (n=17) 35% 41% ad hoc scrapers sub-circular scrapers 18% 6% flaked pieces used Figure 32: Pie chart showing Secondary technology components from Leedaun II, Co. Mayo Furthermore, there is a similarly high incidence of utilised pieces from the later Leedaun site which are closer in type to the expedient tool forms derived from *Roughan Hill than the expedient roughly flaked types from the earlier neighbouring site at *Leedaun I. The nature of the primary technology is essentially similar within all the collections, however, the proportion and type of secondary technology is quite variable within these collections; although all appear to indicate a range of essentially expedient tools along with more formal scraper types and the occasional arrowhead and coarse stone axes. Within the scraper category from the Developed Bronze Age period, there is a shift towards more expedient forms, although proportionally, scrapers remain a quantitatively significant component of the overall tool-class category. This pattern of more ad hoc scrapers compared to sub-circular forms is fully borne out within the Later Bronze Age domestic assemblages, although again, there is no overall decrease in the scraper populations per se. A portion of a polished stone axe made of mudstone (Figure 33) were associated with a large fully bipolar chert lithic assemblage came from Leedaun II, Co. Mayo 84

85 dating to c BC. Figure 33: Portion of a polished stone axe from Leedaun Area II, Co. Mayo. Corrstown, Co. Derry (C14 dates centre around 1500 BC MBA) This large flint collection was originally analysed by the present writer for inclusion in the doctoral study. Since that time, additional dating information has come to light for the Corrstown site as a whole and shows that the main use of the site centres around the Middle Bronze Age period and the subsequently updated lithic analysis is now published (O Hare 2012). There was evidence of some stone moulds for the production of metal tools/weaponry (Grogan 2012) but as most sites of the later period that do have such moulds which is seen in a number of later settlements, these invariably are not accompanied by actual tools to work and produce metal objects. The domestic settlement was associated with a plain version of the Cordoned Urn Tradition which is emerging as a Middle Bronze Age ceramic type according to Roche and Grogan s (2012) reassessment of this type of pottery from the Corrstown site. This is one of the largest collections analysed within this survey that relates to the post-vase Tradition period. The dates for this site correspond closest with the beginning of the traditional Middle Bronze Age period, the Killymaddy. The range of radiocarbon dates were derived mainly from the substantial dwellings in evidence at the site, indicative of a large settlement. The spread of lithic material was found partly above this settlement material and partly associated with many of the structures. As this appeared to be a homogenous assemblage distributed between the stratified and unstratified levels, it was interpreted as essentially belonging to the main activity of the Middle Bronze Age settlement. 85

86 This is the first flint assemblage (nodular chalk type) assessed thus far within a domestic context, it was interesting to see that it is also bipolar reduced, like the chert counterparts discussed above relating to the Beaker and Early Bronze Age period. This large collection from Corrstown, Co. Derry, constituting over 11, 000 pieces of mainly fresh nodular and fairly poor quality flint abundant within this near-coastal region of the north-east of the island. The archaeological lithic material constituted c. 2/3 of an estimated total for the entire Corrstown lithic collection. The actual analysed pieces constitute 11,362 pieces and the results are outlined below. It is mainly large nodular fresh cortical type and many pieces had large inclusions. However, some of the lithic material is beach pebble type flint. The primary reduction technology is again bipolar dominated. The collection is dominated substantially by primary reduction pieces which account for 10,590 pieces out of a total of 11,237, representing 93.2 per cent of the assemblage as a whole. The composition of the primary technology is as follows: over half the primary assemblage (55.1 per cent) from Corrstown was made up of bipolar cores (5881). There was a fairly high frequency of bipolar flakes accounting for over a third of the primary technology. The micro-debitage is fairly minimal representing 3 per cent. The blade technology is represented by 22 pieces and is described as such based upon L/B ratio of 2:1 and this makes up a small portion of the overall platform struck category dominated by flakes and there were no less than 52 amorphous cores, which are fairly expedient platform types. Most of these expedient platform cores had a single or few deliberate flake removals, indicating a fairly wasteful approach to raw material. The combined platform technology from Corrstown accounts for (7 per cent) (see Figure 34). 86

87 Composition of primary (reduction) technology (nodular flint) from Corrstown (MBA) 7% (n=10,590) 3% bipolar cores 35% 55% bipolar flakes micro-debitage platform Figure 34: Pie chart showing Primary technology components from Corrstown, Co. Derry The remaining primary assemblage was made up of miscellaneous types, fragments and broken pieces which are not listed above. As highlighted at the beginning of this survey, blade technology within essentially bipolar dominated assemblages is notable by its absence and/or paucity within assemblages of the metalworking era and indeed the generally low incidence of conventionally platform production pieces, although these occur sporadically within essentially bipolar industries as noted by Kuijt et al (1995, 119), this is still a fairly high percentage of platform pieces compared to most of the assemblages assessed so far. It may be that these were picked up within the environs of this site and perhaps even employed as rare material along within the fairly abundant large nodular flint from the environs and within the site. Dimensions for bipolar pieces Figure 35 shows the dimensional ranges in 10mm intervals for bipolar cores and scalar flakes showing the highest frequency of <30mm for bipolar flakes and <40mm for bipolar cores, although the larger dimensions of between <50 and <60mm is fairly large for the bipolar cores from Corrstown. It may be that the availability of fresh large nodular flint from this area may account for these significantly larger bipolar pieces from this site compared to most of the flint bipolar assemblages 87

88 discussed thus far. However, the typical overall distribution of smaller scalar flakes and larger bipolar cores within fairly restricted dimensional ranges is still reflective of other bipolar assemblages from the earliest Bronze Age until the later period. Corrstown bipolar dimensions (nodular flint) bipolar flakes bipolar cores Figure 35: Bar chart showing dimensions for bipolar pieces from Corrstown, Co. Derry. Secondary technology The secondary technology from Corrstown fell sharply when the full analysis of the sample (representing around two thirds of the estimate total) were fully assessed. The final analysis showed that tools as such inclusive of scrapers, ad hoc types, a handful of formal sub-circular scrapers and a dominance of bipolar cores and flakes that could only be established as used based upon polish and morphology of pieces that would have been used as tools. Many more bipolar cores and flakes may have been used in the industry but could not be included in the tool category and were assigned instead to the primary (reduction) category. These pieces may have been used only once and would not show polish etc and rapidly discarded as the flint material (close to natural outcrops) of chalk flint was abundant within this region and therefore perhaps a more wasteful approach to lithic use is in evidence within this assemblage. The secondary (tool) category, where it could be established accounts for c. 6 per cent. The Corrstown material, like most of the other contemporaneous lithic assemblages and those from the earliest metalworking era, present a high 88

89 proportion of the secondary technology in the form of utilised pieces, characterised by bipolar flakes and cores with naturally pointed, scalloped and or sharp cutting edges as a result of the knapping process via bipolar reduction. These characteristic pieces from most of the assemblages throughout the Irish Bronze Age would have been presumably employed (as they were) in various tasks of cutting, scraping and boring (Figure 36). Figure 36: Range of flint bipolar-on-anvil flakes and cores, which would have been suitable for use without further modification for boring, scraping and cutting tasks from Corrstown, Co. Derry. The Corrstown material, like the majority of other contemporaneous lithic assemblages present a high proportion of the secondary technology is represented by used pieces (Figure 37). The scraper population is relatively large, however, only a few of these could be described as sub-circular (perfunctory) types and the remainder are very roughly flaked or heavily used types, often employing the natural scraping edge of a piece. 89

90 Proportion secondary (tools) technology from Corrstown (MBA) (n=690) 30% ad hoc scrapers 57% 1% sub-circular scrapers flaked pieces used 12% Figure 37: Pie chart showing Secondary technology components from Corrstown, Co. Derry The ad hoc scrapers from Corrstown show dimensions of between 30 and 40mm, which is exactly the preferred size of bipolar/scalar pieces from the site and in turn reflect similar dimensional ranges to other contemporaneous flint assemblages. The vast majority of tool types from Corrstown, well over half the secondary category, are used pieces. The significant proportion (almost a third) are scrapers, mainly adhoc types where the more formal sub-circular scraper types account for a mere 1 per cent of the total secondary assemblage. There were a relatively significant proportion of flaked pieces (12 per cent). Figure 38: (MBA) flint scrapers: rough well-flaked scraper (top left); crude cortical scraper (top right); neat sub-circular scraper (below) from Corrstown, Co. Derry. 90

91 The combined scraper population from Corrstown is relatively large, however, only a few of these could be described as sub-circular (perfunctory) types and the remainder are very roughly flaked or heavily utilised types. Often these latter forms employ/exploit the natural scraping edge of a piece (Figure 38). The Corrstown ad hoc scrapers show dimensions of between 30 and 40mm, which is exactly the preferred size of bipolar pieces from the site and in turn reflects similar dimensional ranges to other contemporaneous flint assemblages. The vast majority of tool types from Corrstown, well over half the secondary category, are used pieces. The significant proportion, (almost a third) are scrapers, mainly ad hoc types where the more formal sub-circular scraper types account for a mere 1 per cent of the total secondary assemblage. There were a relatively significant proportion of flaked pieces (12 per cent) found within the Corrstown lithic collection and the emerging pattern of assemblages contained less standardised scrapers compared to neat sub-circular types can be seen to be emerging as a feature of the later assemblages as reflected within the small chert assemblage from *Leedaun II, Co. Mayo. Axes and a palstave were associated a complete miniature axe, five large axe fragments and a small flake with Structure 37 and the five fragments were unstratified and derived from topsoil. The assessment of the Corrstown axes although generally broken and fragmentary, indicate very little evidence of actual use (Grogan 2012). Other broken portions of axes and a macehead found within the Middle Bronze Age settlement which are represented material within broadly contemporaneous burials of the period (O Hare 2005). Ballyarnet, Co. Derry (lakeside Cordoned Urn site MBA) Another directly analysed lithic assemblage of the broader Middle Bronze Age period is from Ballyarnet lakeside settlement associated with the Cordoned Urn Tradition (Courtesy of O Néill; lithic analysis O Hare 2000). Most of the pieces were derived from the clearance trench (topsoil layer) and some pottery sherds, metal working debris along with modern finds were also recovered from the exploratory excavation. As the lithics from the modern horizon exhibit similar characteristics to those from sealed contexts, this assemblage was treated as broadly contemporaneous. It should also be noted that some of the blade marks identified on timbers recovered from the site show clear evidence of being worked by metal blades (O Néill per. comm.). 91

92 This assemblage of only 22 pieces was derived from a lakeside settlement associated with Cordoned Urn material. Although small, the assemblage can be directly paralleled with similar lithic types from contemporaneous and slightly earlier contexts. This had a fairly small mixed assemblage of mainly flint supplemented by quartz. However, apart from a few flint bipolar cores, some of which were used, most of the primary reduction material was of quartz. Primary technology (reduction strategy) There were two fragments (technology not discernible) and from the known primary technology from Ballyarnet consisted of two bipolar cores, one bipolar flake and four platform (broken) pieces including a blade. There were a few more bipolar cores which may have been used and are classified under secondary (tool) technology. There was no micro-debitage pieces recovered (Figure 39). The platform primary technology within this small collection may represent material collected from earlier industries as this region within the County is known for Neolithic activity and this is a fairly common practice seen within some other Bronze Age sites particularly of this later period. The re-use of earlier type-fossils is not uncommon in this period which will be seen as the survey continues. Composition of primary (reduction) technology (pebble flint + quartz) from Ballyarnet (MBA) (n=8) 29% bipolar cores bipolar flakes 57% micro-debitage platform 14% 0% Figure 39: Pie chart showing Primary technology components from Ballyarnet, Co. Derry. 92

93 Leaving aside the unusually high incidence of platform technology within this fairly small collection, the bipolar aspect of the primary technology from Ballyarnet reflects, albeit on a smaller scale as this was only an exploratory excavation, the components of bipolar reduced primary assemblage from broadly contemporaneous collections and earlier collections. The dimensions for the bipolar material are fairly similar to chert bipolar dimensions discussed thus far in having a frequency of between 20 and 30mm for their greatest size. The primary technology accounts of half the lithic pieces, which is typically more predominant within other Bronze Age assemblages; although the small size of the Ballyarnet assemblage should be considered in this context. As noted earlier in relation to quartz, this demands bipolar reduction rather than platform reduction. Judging by a number of site reports from this region in general, it seems that quartz is freely available and employed in a number of industries of the earlier periods from this County (O Hare 2005). Secondary technology (tools) The secondary technology from Ballyarnet is quite high at c. 50 per cent out of the total collection of just over 20 pieces. Five lithic tools are represented by pointed type bipolar pieces and an ad hoc type scraper which reflects on a smaller scale the expedient type tools from contemporary and earlier collections. However, the number of retouched tools from this exploratory excavation was fairly high and includes two sub-circular scrapers, a well-flaked knife and a concave scraper (a Middle Neolithic type-fossil), and it is therefore possible that the latter two implements are recycled objects from earlier times (Figure 40). 93

94 Figure 40: Selection of a diverse range of lithic pieces recovered from Ballyarnet, Co. Derry including an earlier type-fossil (top left); contemporaneous Bronze Age types such as a very neat sub-circular scraper (top right)s and an arrowhead. More expedient tools can be seen in the lower right of the illustration comprising of crude sub-circular type scrapers and some typical pointed bipolar reduction material made on flint and quartz An enlarged barbed and tanged arrowhead known as a Ballyclare type employing Green s (1980) scheme, was found within a sealed secure and datable context (O Hare 2002) from C.103, a timber palisade and sealed by C. 102 (Figure 40). The position of this arrowhead at the very base of this palisade seems to suggest the deliberate deposition of this important and impressive lithic piece. The arrowhead may have been placed as a special deposit found within a structural trench and perhaps represents a ritual foundation burial in this context. This arrowhead type appears to be a new introduction in this phase of the Bronze Age and is well attested in burial, hoard and ritual contexts of this period (O Hare 2005). Lugg, Co. Dublin (sanctuary and settlement MBA/LBA). Lugg, Co. Dublin, (Kilbride-Jones 1950) was originally believed to be Iron Age but now believed to date to latter part of the Bronze Age. This is based upon the associated with Coarse Ware ceramics found at pre-iron Age sites around Ireland as highlighted by Raftery (1981). This ceramic tradition may also date specifically to the Middle Bronze Age period as more sites of this period are emerging that contain similar Coarse Ware forms (See discussion by Roche and Grogan 2012). Judging from the original excavation report, it appears to be quite an extensive 94

95 settlement described, as a village as it was associated with a defined area with several huts, while the nature of another area led the excavator, Kilbride-Jones to refer to this as a sanctuary (1950). Although it was difficult to separate this assemblage in terms of possible functional variation between the secular and nonsecular aspects of the site, never-the-less, the two main areas within the Lugg site appear to be contemporaneous and the majority of lithic material does appear to have been derived from just outside the hut areas, suggestive of domestic activity in the main. Out of these 541 flint pieces, the secondary technology accounted for c. 11 per cent of the total and the remaining 89 per cent was primary reduction material. The flint material was fairly poor and appears to be glacially derived. Primary assemblage composition The primary material consisted of bipolar cores (64 per cent), bipolar flakes (29 per cent), only 6 per cent were micro-debitage and 1 per cent could not be categorised. Many of the lithic pieces were burnt. There were no conventionally struck pieces or blades (Figure 41), and the proportions for primary technology in the form of bipolar cores and bipolar flakes is very similar to these primary proportions within the *Corrstown lithic assemblage 95

96 Proportion of primary (reduction) technology (flint) from Lugg (n=541) 6% 29% bipolar cores bipolar flakes micro-debitage 64% platform Figure 41: Pie chart showing Primary lithic components from Lugg, Co. Dublin. Dimensions of primary technology The bipolar pieces ranged from between <20mm and <40mm for bipolar cores with a slightly higher preference for bipolar cores of <20mm. The rest were well distributed over the <30mm and <40mm dimensions. The preferred bipolar flake range was <20mm, which is quite small compared to the greater dimensional range of the bipolar cores (Figure 42). These dimensional ranges were only marginally larger than similar bipolar reduced assemblages employing chert as seen within *Roughan Hill, Co. Clare; the two *Leedaun sites in County Mayo dating from the earlier phases of metallurgy However, the overall dimensions for bipolar reduced flint from Lugg is noticeably smaller when compared to the large nodular flint dimensions for bipolar pieces identified within the potentially contemporaneous Middle Bronze Age collection from *Corrstown, Co. Derry, outlined above. Although, it seems that Corrstown may be quite exceptional within this study in general, as it is one of very few assemblages that employed nodular (fresh) flint from near source. 96

97 Dimensional frequencies of bipolar pieces (flint) from Lugg bipolar flakes bipolar cores Figure 42: Bar chart showing bipolar dimensions from Lugg, Co. Dublin. The secondary technology The secondary technology within the Lugg assemblage accounts for 11 per cent of the total and apart from the porcellanite polished stone axe derived generally from the main horizon of the site, there were flint pebble scrapers akin to other rounded type scrapers found from several other Bronze Age collections. The polished stone axe is of interest as a portion of a polished stone axe was found at the broadly contemporaneous sites of *Leedaun, II, Co. Mayo, as was the case within the Middle Bronze Age site at *Corrstown, Co. Derry. It will be seen as this survey unfolds that polished stone axes are relatively common within Middle and Late Bronze Age domestic contexts, as is the case within the funerary, ritual and hoard contexts of the developed Bronze Age. The overall technology from Lugg consisted of the typical array of scrapers, predominantly ad hoc types along with a much lesser component of sub-circular type scrapers (Figure 43). Again the predominant ad hoc scraper types is reflected in this later collection; a pattern seen to be emerging within the *Leedaun II, Co. Mayo, and *Corrstown, Co. Derry assemblages and seen within later assemblages. Figure 43 shows the typical high proportion of the used category compared to other components and in particular, the secondary technology components correspond quite closely with the proportion of secondary categories from the Middle Bronze Age site at *Corrstown, Co. Derry, and reflect other secondary proportions identified from the Beaker, Early and Middle Bronze Age collections, 97

98 where the used category is typically the most dominant tool component within these assemblages. Indeed, some of the earlier assemblages such as from the Farmsteads within *Roughan Hill, Co. Clare, dating to the Beaker and Early Bronze Age have more significant proportions of utilised pieces. The main variation is that the earlier sites tend to have similar scraper proportions within overall secondary assemblages; it is that the more formal scraper predominate the earlier collections and conversely, ad hoc types tend to dominate the scraper category within the later period. Composition of secondary (tools) technology from Lugg MBA/LBA (n=61) 26% ad hoc scrapers sub-circular scrapers 1% 4% flaked pieces used 69% Figure 43: Pie chart showing Secondary technology components from Lugg, Co. Dublin Haughey s Fort, Co. Armagh, (hillfort activity commencing c BC) Haughey s Fort, Co. Armagh, (Mallory 1988; Mallory 1991; Mallory 1995; Mallory & Warner 1988; Mallory & O Neill 1991 and Mallory et al 1996); is a hillfort was built and occupied around 1100 BC (Mallory and McNeill 1991), indicating that the main occupation commenced towards the end of the Bishopsland Phase the 98

99 developed Middle Bronze Age / BC. The ad hoc nature of the lithic assemblage as a whole is like so many other collections discussed thus far, is seen within both the primary and secondary technology employed at the site. This crude, but nevertheless functional, lithic industry within Haughey s Fort was originally recognised by the excavator prior to the lithic analysis by the writer and described in the following terms: It is probable that flint tools were contemporary with the Later Bronze Age occupation of Haughey s Fort and were on occasion utilized for simple tasks in an otherwise bronze industry which had long since seen the collapse of a sophisticated flint knapping (Mallory 1988, 19). A sample of around 600, mainly flint pieces, was selected out from a large lithic collection for analysis associated with this site. Other finds from the site included an abundance of Coarse Ware sherds and metalwork relating directly or indirectly to tool production is not in evidence from this site. However, there were minute fragments of metal and a gold stud along with bronze objects, such as a sunflower pin, three rings and a fragment of a possible bracelet as reviewed by Waddell, who suggests that these may be indicative of fine metalworking on the site (1998, 217). These objects, although important, do not indicate the manufacture or use metalworking tools. Interestingly, there is some supporting evidence for the use of flint at this site as seen in the cut marks on pig bones noted by McCormick in the following: Some of the cut marks at Haughey s Fort are too fine to have been made with a bronze knife. One cut mark, on a pig s pelvis, was only 0.1 mm at the open end of the incision. It seems likely that this was made with a freshly struck flint flake (1988, 25). The present writer attempted to assess the use of metal blades at this site by reviewing a detailed study on a large number of very well preserved worked timbers by Neill (1996). Unfortunately, the cut marks on these timbers were not particularly informative regarding the tool types used. Interestingly, like a number of mid to later Bronze Age sites, there was a stone axe recovered, but this was not found in-situ. It is of porcellanite (a volcanic rock known mainly from the north-east of Ireland) and is highly. 99

100 The total of just over 600 archaeological lithic pieces were analysed from Haughey s Fort, randomly selected from a much larger collection of a couple of thousand pieces, some of which were natural background flint. Most of the lithic collection was derived from within datable features and horizons directly relating to the main occupation of the hillfort. Many of the flints were burnt and derived from pits associated with the overall occupation of the site. The flint material was in the main very poor river-rolled/glacial pebble flint. A small percentage (0.2 per cent) was made up of quartz. Glacial flint is freely available within the surrounding area. The overall characteristics of the flint was fairly patinated, polished and heavily abraded small naturally fractured flint. This assemblage confirms once again the general use of fairly poor lithic material and the use of what is closest to hand. However, like most other industries of the Bronze Age in general, the Haughey s Fort collection is predominantly bipolar reduced. Primary technology composition Figure 44 shows the proportion of primary technology components from Haughey s Fort, which accounts for 85 per cent of the total analysed sample of over 600 pieces. Out of the known population of primary technology (480 pieces), the categories are as follows: 160 bipolar cores (30%); 164 bipolar flakes (45%); 66 pieces of micro-debitage (18%) and the platform reduced category includes 21 flakes with platform attributes (4.3 per cent) and, along with a range of amorphous and various platform type cores, 18 in all and two blades (0.5 per cent) accounting for 7 per cent of the total primary technology from Haughey s Fort. 100

101 Composition of primary (reduction) technology (flint) from Haughey's Fort (c BC) (n=414) 7% 18% 30% bipolar cores bipolar flakes micro-debitage platform 45% Figure 44: Pie chart showing Primary technology components from Haughey s Fort, Co. Armagh. The fairly high incidence of micro-debitage may be due to sieving at this site. The bipolar cores and bipolar flakes make up the greatest percentage within any primary assemblage of the Bronze Age, thus far outlined and Haughey s Fort is no exception and reflects most of the assemblages of this period from domestic contexts which will be seen below. The fairly high proportion of platform technology (7 per cent) compared to other primary technologies (bipolar) directly reflects the proportion from within the Middle Bronze Age assemblage from *Corrstown, Co. Derry. The fairly high quantity of bipolar flakes compared to bipolar cores within Haughey s Fort is comparable to the similarly high incidence of bipolar flakes to bipolar cores found within the chert assemblage of the Middle Bronze period from *Leedaun, II, Co. Mayo. Otherwise, most primary reduction (bipolar assemblages) tends to have a predominance of bipolar cores over bipolar flakes as seen in the earlier directly analysed assemblages. 101

102 Figure 45 shows typical bipolar core from Haughey s Fort, which conforms morphologically and to some extent dimensionally with its chert and flint counterparts from domestic contexts of the earliest metalworking era. Figure 46 shows a selection of bipolar (anvil) cores, mainly pointed and some bipolar flakes from this site are morphologically similar to bipolar cores found within other primary reduction assemblages identified directly from the earliest until the latest phases of the Bronze Age. Figure 45: Typical flint (patinated) bipolar pointed core from Haughey s Fort, Co Armagh. Figure 46: Random selection of a range of flint bipolar (mainly pointed) cores and bipolar flakes from Haughey s Fort, Co Armagh. Dimensions for primary technology Figure 47 shows the bipolar cores from Haughey s Fort had an upper limit of <70mm, indicating that at least some sizable nodules were employed in the industry. The preferred size for these cores had a higher frequency of between <30mm to <40mm with most being <30mm. The Haughey s Fort bipolar flakes show a fairly high frequency within the <20mm range. These smaller spread of dimensions for bipolar flakes compared to bipolar cores is typical within most 102

103 bipolar lithic assemblages whether made from chert or flint. The dimensions from the bipolar pieces within the Haughey s Fort collection reflects other non-chert assemblages from Bronze Age contexts and particularly reflected within the mid to Late Bronze Age *Lugg, Co. Dublin, flint assemblage. The only exception to this pattern seen within flint dimensions for bipolar pieces can be seen within the Middle Bronze Age site at *Corrstown, Co. Derry, where, the raw material is typically much larger as it is derived from fresh (nodular) flint sources compared to riverine/glacial flint employed in the Haughey s Fort assemblage. Haughey's Fort, bipolar dimensions (flint) bipolar flakes bipolar cores 0 Figure 47: Bar chart showing dimensions for bipolar pieces from Haughey s Fort, Co Armagh. Secondary technology Figure 48 shows the distribution of the main secondary (tools) category found within the Haughey s Fort assemblage of flint. Interestingly this pie chart is very similar to that from the Middle Bronze Age site at *Leedaun II, Co. Mayo, which employed chert. Within Haughey s Fort secondary technology distribution, the used category (37 per cent) was fairly substantial as seen within most other Bronze Age assemblages; although in this case, this category is less than the combined scraper category. The greatest density of tools are scrapers accounting for over half of the total tool (secondary) assemblage made neat sub-circular scrapers (18 per 103

104 cent), and rough scrapers (35 per cent), although the scrapers from Haughey s Fort show the same predominance of ad hoc scrapers over neat sub-circular types as seen within most other later assemblages of the Bronze Age (Figure 48). This density of scrapers dominating the tool-class category compared to the typically more prolific utilised types found in all the period discussed thus far, finds its closest parallel with the *Roughan Hill, Co. Clare, tool classes from Farmstead 2 relating to the Beaker/Early Bronze Age period. Composition of secondary (tools) technology from Haughey's Fort (c. 1100BC) (n=51) 35% 37% ad-hoc scrapers sub-circular scrapers flaked pieces used pieces 10% 18% Figure 48: Bar chart showing Secondary technology components from Haughey s Fort, Co. Armagh. The main variation between the scrapers of the earlier and later period would appear to be the predominance of sub-circular type scrapers from earlier sites compared to the dominance of expedient scraper types from earlier sites. This shift was discernible within one particular assemblage dating to the phase just prior to the Later Bronze Age from *Leedaun II, Co. Mayo. And most of these Later Bronze Age assemblages reflect this predominance of ad hoc scrapers. The Haughey s Fort 104

105 scrapers ranged from c. 22 to 44mm for length with an average breadth of c. 30mm, which is broadly reflected within other contemporaneous scraper assemblage. Figure 49 presents a range of fairly ad hoc scraper types from Haughey s Fort, Co. Armagh. Figure 49: Coarse Ware Tradition (LBA) flint scrapers: (top two) neat sub-circular scrapers, (second from top) fairly crude scraper, (bottom) neat sub-circular scraper from Haughey s Fort, Co. Armagh. Figure 50: A bipolar flake from the Late Bronze Age hillfort at *Haughey s Fort, Co Armagh. 105

106 Figure 51: Selection of pointed flint bipolar cores/flakes that would have been perfectly suitable to cutting, boring and piercing task from Haughey s Fort, Co Armagh. Figures illustrate the more bipolar type flakes and pointed bipolar pieces that would have been perhaps employed for many of the tasks such as piercing and cutting required within this site. The other important category from Haughey s Fort is the flaked pieces, which although quite minimal compared to the scrapers or used pieces categories, perhaps reflects the importance of deliberately modified pieces which made up a significant proportion in relation to utilised pieces at the *Leedaun, I, Co. Mayo, site dating to the period BC. However, Haughey s Fort, like most assemblages even dating to the Beaker period has a significant proportion of used pieces as is clearly seen within most assemblages directly analyzed thus far. Rathgall, Co. Wicklow, (Hillfort - Late Bronze Age) Rathgall site, Co. Wicklow, (Raftery 1970, 1971, 1973, 1974, ) and updated information online (Raftery 2003). Another Late Bronze Age hillfort has a small mainly flint assemblage associated. This site is known as Rathgall, and although it has multi-period activity, the radiocarbon determinations place the main activity principally towards the latter stages of the Bronze Age with radiocarbon date ranges of BC, with most of the activity centring on c BC, making the lithic collections of this site and *Haughey s Fort broadly contemporaneous. Augmenting the dates is the array of Later Bronze Age Coarse Wares distributed within various concentrations. It should be noted however, that there are two main zones of different activity identified within the Rathgall site: one industrial/domestic and the other were of a ritual/funerary nature. Unlike most sites discussed thus far, Rathgall is rich in metal finds and fragmentary moulds for the production of metal, although there was some evidence at the Middle Bronze Age site within *Corrstown, Co. Derry, of some portions of 106

107 moulds for the making of metal tools/weaponry and like Rathgall moulds and other paraphernalia relating to metalworking, there was a lack of associated metalworking tools, moulds for the production of everyday working metal tools and other paraphernalia that we would normally associated with this type of production; a point previously made regarding these metal industrial sites in Ireland in general as highlighted by Waddell (1998). In the case of the Rathgall this industrial activity is ubiquitous throughout the site and indeed several other highly crafted products are also known from the site. The material recovered was objects of bronze, gold and glass, along with lignite and at least three discrete zones of metalworking were established within the site. More than 2500 fragments were recovered indicative of the casting of swords, spearheads, chapes, axeheads and palstaves, pins, and a possible sickle. Apart from the axes/palstave mould fragments, the other types represent weaponry or ornaments. Furthermore, some of this material may relate to ritual activity rather than utilitarian tasks as within the southern area of the site a number of pits, many containing rubbish and Coarse Ware pottery, seemed to be associated with ritual/burials as one pit in particular may have been a male burial associated with a bronze chisel, a spearhead and a fragmentary sword blade that had been cut at each end. The bronze chisel would of course be a useful tool, but in this context it appears to have other meanings attached to it. Similarly, the weaponry from this context would appear to indicate ritual activity. Taking the Rathgall lithic collection as a whole and potentially domestic assemblage, the assessment as follows conforms broadly to those assessed from clearly secular only sites and within much better contexts to the lithics derived from Rathgall, although the results were quite similar to other lithic assemblages and the evidence for metal tools in place of these tools is lacking from this site. The Rathgall lithic assemblage consists of 111, mainly flint pieces, all of which were recorded as recovered from the site. The contexts for this lithic collection were less than ideal. Primary assemblage composition The primary technology from Rathgall accounts for 81 per cent of the total assemblage in relation to secondary technology. The flint material was constructed from relatively poor quality material which would appear to be derived from glacial till in the environs of the site. The primary assemblage was essentially bipolar produced, which also includes the process of splitting pebbles. This seems the most 107

108 direct and expedient manner to produce workable pieces. This proportion of primary technology to secondary technology reflects the proportions found within Figure 52 shows a selection of split-pebble produced material from Rathgall, as noted earlier essentially this is bipolar reduction. Again, like the earlier periods, this strategy appears to be a remarkably standardised technique in metrical and morphological terms. Figure 52: Selection of primary technology from Rathgall, Co. Wicklow. Split pebble (top left); quartered pebble/bipolar core (top right); scalar flake (bottom). The bipolar cores from Rathgall account for (42 per cent) of the total primary assemblage and the proportion of bipolar flakes was higher at 51 per cent accounting for over half the primary assemblage, and micro-debitage pieces accounted for a mere 1 per cent (Figure 53). The high proportion of bipolar cores and scalar flakes are reflected within most Bronze Age sites, although there was very little in the way of micro-debitage recovered from Rathgall, which seems variable within these assemblages, although this may be accounted for by the nature of recovery. The platform technology proportion (6 per cent) is not unlike the proportion from *Haughey s Fort. The platform category is made up of blades and other conventionally struck flakes from Rathgall. 108

109 Proportions of primary (reduction) technology (flint) from Rathgall (MBA-LBA)(n=90) 1% 6% 42% bipolar cores bipolar flakes micro-debitage platform 51% Figure 53: Pie chart illustrating percentages of primary technology types within Rathgall, Co. Wicklow assemblage. Dimensions for primary technology The bipolar cores showed a tendency towards larger sizes compared to bipolar flakes; which again is seen within most of the domestic assemblages reviewed thus far. The upper limit is <50mm presumably reflecting the small size of the pebbletype flint employed (Figure 54). This begins to imply an optimum size for flakes employed within these domestic industries and the bipolar cores tend to have an optimum size, although where raw material will allow; these tend to expand to the upper dimensional ranges. Again the dimensions for bipolar pieces show the usual pattern for glacial type flint of preferred lengths of <20mm for bipolar flakes and <30mm for bipolar cores; although scalar flakes also have a fairly high incidence of dimensions approximating <30mm. 109

110 Dimensional frequency of bipolar technology (flint) from Rathgall bipolar flakes bipolar cores Figure 54: Bar chart showing dimensions for bipolar pieces from Rathgall, Co. Wicklow. Secondary technology The secondary technology from Rathgall, Co. Wicklow accounts for 19 per cent of the total assemblage. The proportion for secondary technology is more in keeping with the high proportion of tools to reduction material established for the chert assemblage from *Leedaun, II from Co. Mayo, dating to the Middle Bronze Age and from the earlier site at *Roughan Hill, Co. Clare dating from the Beaker to the Early Bronze Age period. Figure 55 shows that almost half the tool-category is made up of ad hoc scrapers and sub-circular neater type scrapers account for a quarter of the entire tool-category. Again the main pattern clearly emerging at this point is that: although scrapers obviously remain quantitatively significant at this time, the formal sub-circular types are declining at the expense of ad hoc scrapers, where in earlier industries it was the other way round. The combined scraper population from Rathgall represents almost three-quarters of the entire secondary tool-class category (Figure 55) and is broadly reflective of the high density of scrapers compared to used and flaked pieces seen within the Late Bronze Age assemblage from *Haughey s Fort, Co. Armagh, although within the Rathgall tool-class category, the used category is smaller than most other assemblages representing less than 20 per cent of the total tools from this site which is fairly atypical of other assemblages which are more often dominated by used bipolar pieces. 110

111 Proportion of secondary (tools) technology from Rathgall (LBA) (n=16) 19% 6% 50% ad hoc scrapers sub-circular scrapers flaked pieces used pieces 25% Figure 55: Pie chart showing percentages of the main secondary technology types from Rathgall, Co. Wicklow Figure 56: Fairly neat sub-circular flint scraper from Rathgall, Co. Wicklow. There were several sub-circular and rough scraper types from Rathgall (Figure 56) more akin to the predominantly neater sub-circular scrapers found within earlier assemblages. There was also a few very well executed lithics from Rathgall (Figure 57) which are the product of platform technology and would be more typically associated with significantly earlier prehistoric traditions and again these may represent the re-use or recycling which is a feature of these otherwise expedient Bronze Age industries. 111

112 . Figure 57: A finely produced platform blade possibly dating to the Neolithic period, which was unstratified within the Rathgall. Co. Wicklow site; although potentially employed within the Later Bronze Age period as a tool. There was also a broken chert barbed and tanged arrowhead derived from the Rathgall site but again, this was without a secure context. However, it of a Bronze Age type and does reflect the pattern of arrowheads being derived from contemporaneous settlements from more secure contexts which will be reviewed further on. Furthermore, as will be seen as this assessment unfolds: the re-use of significantly earlier type-fossils is a fairly common component within later prehistoric lithic assemblages. The important point about the Rathgall assemblage is that it reflects the mainstay lithic technology identified within other much better associated lithic material from the same period. Killymoon, Co. Tyrone (dates centring around 1100 and 600 BC - LBA). Killymoon is metal rich and indicates much smelting and other metal production activity (Hurl 1995, Hurl et al 1995 online, and Hurl 1999). It is therefore similar to *Rathgall, Co. Wicklow, discussed above. However, again as seems to be the case with *Rathgall, the Killymoon sites do not seem to represent domestic sites per se, but rather may be viewed as metal-working sites with domestic activity. Like the *Rathgall site, Killymoon did not produce evidence for the manufacturing of everyday tools of metal and this may perhaps support this distinction between domestic settlements and metalworking sites with domestic activity. Either way, these sites all still seem to have associated lithic technology that may have been employed for particular domestic tasks. Several radiocarbon date ranges were obtained corresponding to the broader phases identified within the site. These ranged from the Middle to Late Bronze Age period although the main activity from which the stone implements were derived 112

113 was associated mainly with Phase 4. The main features were burnt mounds, hearths and dumps, grains, pots, lots of saddle querns, spindle whorls, rubbing stones and stone hammers. The lack of living structures is quite puzzling as noted by the excavator (Hurl online), even though there were quite a few finds we would normally associate with domestic activity such as the grains, saddle querns, spindle whorls, rubbing stones, hammers and Coarse Ware pots and other lithic material including stone axes. This may lend some further support to the idea of this being a bronze-working workshop area with some evidence of domestic activity rather than an actual settlement. Again, the Killymoon site is akin to the hillfort at *Rathgall, Co. Wicklow, outlined above in terms of a good deal of domestic related artefacts with no evidence of actual house structures and had a similarly rich array of metal and metal related artefacts, but lacking evidence of the full range of industrial activity one would normally expect associated with industrial metalworking. The Killymoon sites produced several clay mould fragments, one for a ring-pin and two gold objects including a dress-fastener along with metal slag. There were also a few pieces of partial and complete lignite bracelets. A bronze socketed axe (SF-10016) was also recovered from the site, the first direct evidence found within the survey of an actual metal axe. There was also several spindle whorls, which would be the most likely indicators of a replacement of stone axes and stone scrapers by other methods of fabric production. However, this site also revealed quite a few flint scrapers along with three polished stone axes, which seem to be well used. Killymoon is unusual for this period in that the lithic collection is tool dominated and shows virtually no bipolar reduction or platform primary reduction material. There were no micro-debitage pieces, a single (columnar) bipolar core and two bipolar flakes; instead out of the 85, about half were of flint artefacts dating to the Bronze Age along with some significantly earlier artefacts and the remaining half of the lithic assemblage was represented by coarse stone items. There was a single quartz flake that appeared to be utilised and a number of other flint portions of flakes (non-platform types) that may have been employed in the industry. 113

114 Figure 58: Large flint scrapers from Killymoon, Co. Tyrone. Retouched ad hoc scraper (top and another crude scraper without retouch with scalloped edges forming scraping edge (below). Out of the 44 pieces of flint, 10 were scrapers; one was a split pebble type and four were sub-circular types, along with fairly ad hoc rough scrapers (Figures 58-59). The remaining flint artefacts indicate recycling as seen by the presence of two leafshaped flakes; one may be a Bann flake typical of the Later Mesolithic traditions, two single uni-platformed cores and a well-made flint knife (Figure 60), along with several other portions of blades and flakes that could not be interpreted specifically as tools or debitage. Figure 59: Selection of large flint ad hoc scrapers from Killymoon, Co. Tyrone 114

115 Figure 60: Range of significantly earlier lithic type-fossils found associated with typical Bronze Age lithics from Killymoon, Co. Tyrone Recycling behaviour is clearly in evidence as seen by the presence of two wellmade platformed produced partial blades, two leaf-shaped flakes, two single uniplatformed cores and a well-made flint knife from Killymoon, perhaps reflecting the earlier type-fossil found at *Rathgall, Co. Wicklow. There was evidence of possible re-used earlier lithic types within the Middle Bronze Age period as seen at *Ballyarnet, Co. Derry, (MBA - Cordoned Urn site). Figure 61: Extrapolated hollow based arrowhead from Killymoon, Co. Tyrone The presence of a portion of a hollow based arrowhead (Figure 61) also recovered from the Killymoon site is worth noting as this is a Bronze Age arrowhead type and these forms along with various barbed and tanged types are fairly common within domestic sites as will be discussed further on and reflects the recovery of another broken Bronze Age arrowhead type found within the *Rathgall, Co. Wicklow, collection discussed above. There were three stone axes recovered from Killymoon (Figure 62) and although 115

116 it is likely such axes were manufactured at a much earlier time, that these may have been employed within the industry as the contemporaneous use/presence of polished stone axes is well attested within this point in the Bronze Age and is a fairly common item associated with traditions dating to the end of the Early into the Middle Bronze Age and Cordoned Urn burials (O Hare 2005). The Middle and Late Bronze Age domestic contexts sees a continuance of stone axes as seen in the axe portions from the Middle Bronze Age site at *Corrstown, Co. Derry; from the Mid to Late Bronze Age site at *Lugg, Co. Dublin, *Leedaun II, Co. Mayo, site and possibly the porcellanite axe recovered from the Late Bronze Age hillfort at *Haughey s Fort, Co. Armagh, although, this was unstratified. The information relating to sites dating to the Mid to Late Bronze Age period which will be outlined further on shows that polished stone axes are a common feature within later assemblages of the later phases of the Bronze Age. Other late contexts for polished stone axes are clearly seen within other late contexts assessed by the present writer and can also be seen within the literature pertaining to Bronze Age lithics which will be outlined further on. These begin to support the possibility that even though stone axes such as those from Killymoon may not represent contemporaneously manufactured tools: that this does not mean that they were not contemporaneously employed for general tasks required. Figure 62: Three polished stone axes from Killymoon, Co. Tyrone. 116

117 Ballyutoag (McIlwhans), Co. Antrim, (Late Bronze Age Upland enclosure with house structure) Ballyutoag, Co. Antrim is an upland site described as an enclosed hut circle with possible evidence of Early Bronze Age activity, although essentially Yates assigned most of the activity to the later Bronze Age period, based upon a radiocarbon sample which was less than ideal and may not reflect the actual date of the site (Yates, per. comm.). However, over this area was a substantial round house structure and based upon architectural parallels dates this to the Middle/Late Bronze Age period suggested within a re-evaluation of the original excavation by Philip Macdonald (QUB). It is suggested that Yates original assessment placing much of the settlement activity within the Late Bronze Age was essentially correct (Macdonald per. comm.). The lithic assemblage of several hundred pieces were analysed, 139 pieces selected randomly from a larger collection. Some of these were quite large nodular type flint with fairly large inclusions suggesting a local source within this region of County Antrim, while other flint pieces were glacial type pebble flint. The primary technology accounts for 71 per cent of the total known assemblage. From the total primary assemblage, bipolar cores and bipolar flakes have the same proportions at 37 per cent each of the total primary category. Micro-debitage was quite low in frequency at 4 per cent. This relatively proportioned ratio of bipolar flakes to bipolar cores is quite common among Bronze Age assemblages, although not a predictable pattern. There was a much higher incidence of conventionally struck pieces from Ballyutoag within an otherwise bipolar reduced primary assemblage; suggestive of an industry that may have in part employed Neolithic type material. The platform pieces, which are mainly flakes account for almost a quarter of the primary lithic assemblage (Figure 63) where a sizable proportion of this (2.4 per cent) was made up of blades. 117

118 Proportion of primary (reduction) technology (flint) from Ballyutoag (MBA/LBA - some EBA) (n=84) 24% 36% bipolar cores 4% bipolar flakes micro-debitage platform 36% Figure 63: Pie Chart showing Primary technology components from Ballyutoag, Co. Antrim Eighty-four pieces could be identified as primary technology and almost a quarter of this category is made up of platform reduced pieces as noted above. The secondary technology accounts for 24 pieces and the remaining technology could not be classified as either primary or secondary technology which may have obscured the results. Basically, when the primary technology is compared with secondary technology, a comparatively high proportion of the assemblage is represented by secondary tool technology accounting for 23 per cent of the total, almost a quarter, which is unusually high. However, apart from the fairly high incidence of platform technology in relation to bipolar reduced material and the fairly high proportion of tools to reduced material, otherwise, the Ballyutoag collection is predominantly bipolar reduced and broadly reflects this mainstay technology found from so many other Bronze Age domestic sites. Dimensions for primary technology The dimensions for the Ballyutoag bipolar cores was between <20mm and 118

119 <60mm, with a preferred length of <30mm and <40mm. The distribution of bipolar flakes from Ballyutoag was <20mm to <30mm (Figure 64); these are quite typical dimensions established from all the other flint-based bipolar reduced assemblages. The upper range for bipolar cores in particular is higher than most assemblages discussed thus far with the exception of the Middle Bronze Age *Corrstown industry, Co. Derry. This latter industry employed fresh nodular flint and it seems that Ballyutoag employed at least some nodular type flint which may have been derived from known outcrops within this region of Co. Antrim. Presumably therefore, the larger type raw material produces allows for slightly larger bipolar cores and scalar flakes, but overall these industries irrespective of the raw material seems to show an optimum range (preference) for bipolar pieces where bipolar flakes generally tend to occupy the slightly smaller dimensional range compared to the slighter larger bipolar cores. Dimentional frequency of bipolar technology (flint) from Ballyutoag bipolar flakes bipolar cores 0 Figure 64: Bar chart showing dimensions for bipolar pieces from Ballyutoag, Co. Antrim Secondary technology The pattern of a sizable proportion of ad hoc scrapers compared to more formal sub-circular types can again be seen in the Ballyutoag assemblage, although the subcircular category is quite sizable (Figure 65). The combined scraper category accounts for almost 60 per cent of the total tool-classes, where just over 20 per cent are sub-circular types (Figure 65). There were no flaked pieces, but the used bipolar 119

120 category, as is typical within most of these assemblages from the earliest Bronze Age, is fairly large accounting for over 40 per cent (Figure 65) of the total tool-class. Almost two-thirds of the scrapers are these are quite typical dimensions established from all the other flint-based bipolar reduced assemblages. Proportion of secondary (tools) technology from Ballyutoag (MBA/LBA with some EBA) (n=24) 41% 38% ad hoc scrapers sub-circular scrapers flaked pieces used pieces 21% Figure 65: Pie chart showing Secondary technology components from Ballyutoag, Co. Antrim Figure 66 (top) shows split/quartered nodule of flint (bipolar core) after several episodes of reduction eventually form a natural point than can be employed along with the naturally rough or serrated edges of the pieces. Figure 66 (bottom) also shows a similar point that may have been employed as a piercing type tool but this is classed as a bipolar flake due to only having a single flat face (ventral) and opposite (dorsal) negative scars remaining. The important thing to note is that, excepting the Ballyutoag, Co. Antrim, assemblage, which may be a mixed assemblage, perhaps employing lithic material that would have likely been available in the flint-rich region dating to earlier times, most of these assemblages show a paucity or marginal component of platform technology compared to the mainstay 120

121 bipolar reduced material. This would be is comparable to the Middle Bronze Age (small assemblage) from *Ballyarnet, Co. Derry, which also seems to have evidence of pre-existing Neolithic activity in the locality. Figure 66: Quartered flint nodule creating a bipolar pointed core (top) and more splintered pointed bipolar pieces with sharp point (below) from an upland settlement dating to the Late Bronze Age with underlying possible EBA features from Ballyutoag, Co. Antrim One of the sub-circular scrapers (Figure 67) from Ballyutoag is of interest as it shows how small pebble flint was quartered and opportunistically flaked to form a usable scraper with minimal flaking and where the cortex remains where the flake removals were not required. Contrasting with the mainly expedient technology from Ballyutoag was the broken flint hollow based arrowhead (Figure 68). These Bronze Age type arrowheads including barbed and tanged forms are fairly common within other Middle Bronze Age collections as also seem to be a feature of Late Bronze Age assemblages as seen in within the *Killymoon, Co. Tyrone and *Rathgall, Co. Kilkenny, assemblages outlined above. Bronze Age arrowheads are obviously fairly common within Beaker/Early Bronze Age assemblages as outlined earlier, although as will be seen in the review of Middle and Late Bronze Age material from the literature, arrowheads of hollow based and barbed and tanged form remain important within many assemblages. 121

122 Figure 67: Sub-circular flint scraper retaining cortex (outer chalk layer) of pebble type flint from Ballyutoag, Co. Antrim Figure 68: Broken hollow based flint arrowhead from Ballyutoag, Co. Antrim Freestown Hill, Coolgrange, Co. Kilkenny (Late Bronze Age hillfort) Freestown Hill, Co. Kilkenny (Bersu was the excavator of this site during the 1940s and early fifties, report completed by Raftery 1969) is a hillfort which seems to have been superimposed upon and thus disturbing an earlier Bronze Age cairn. Originally, Freestone Hill was believed to be Iron Age; however, based upon parallels with the Coarse Ware pots from other sites such as: Rathgall and an old radiocarbon sample indicating a period c BC it now looks like the later occupation of this site dates to the Late Bronze Age (Raftery 1995). Although it was difficult to separate the earlier Bronze Age funerary activity from the Late Bronze Age domestic activity, nevertheless, assuming that the cairn lithics would be in-situ associated with sealed burials; it is more than likely that the general spread of lithics recorded by the writer belongs to the later domestic horizon. The use of highly localised material in the form of mainly flint, some chert and small amount of quartz is in evidence from this site. The direct analysis which is presented below compares in terms of use of highly localised material from all of the sites discussed so far; all of which were derived from localised lithic sources. The primary lithic technology is made up of 26 bipolar cores, 11 bipolar flakes and two blades (Figure 69). The bipolar cores are mainly small split pebble type and the 122

123 remaining few pieces were large quartz lumps. From only a total of 56 lithics that were recorded by the present writer, Over 70 Per cent are primary technology, which is quite a low proportion for this technology in relation to secondary technology pieces; and is not dissimilar to the fairly low proportion of primary technology to secondary technology seen within *Ballyutoag, Co. Antrim; *Rathgall, Co. Wicklow, and the earlier assemblage from *Roughan Hill, Co. Clare. Proportion of primary (reduction) technology (flint) from Freestown Hill (LBA) (n=39) 5% 28% bipolar cores bipolar flakes micro-debitage platform 67% Figure 69: Pie chart showing Primary technology components from Freestone Hill, Co. Kilkenny The dimensional ranges for bipolar cores are similar again to other chert and pebble flint type bipolar assemblages in terms of dimensional preference for scalar flakes and bipolar cores of between <20 but main centring on dimensions of <30mm, although this is a fairly small collection with a mixed material of pebble flint, chert and quartz, the bipolar cores and scalar flake dimensions follow the broad dimensions for other assemblages made from glacial flint (Figure 70). 123

124 Dimensional frequency of bipolar technology (flint) from Freestone Hill bipolar flakes 4 2 bipolar cores 0 <20mm <30mm <40mm <50mm Figure 70: Bar chart showing dimensions for bipolar pieces from Freestone Hill, Co. Kilkenny. Secondary technology The secondary proportions that could be established from the original population of 56 lithics represent from Freestone hill 18 Per cent of the total. The largest class of implement, the used bipolar pieces make up half of the tools class category (Figure 71). The ad hoc scrapers account for 40 Per cent with no subcircular types which is more common within these later assemblages and the remaining 10 Per cent is made up of flaked pieces (Figure 71). 124

125 Proportion of secondary (tools) technology flint from Freestone Hill (LBA) (n=10) 40% ad hoc scrapers 50% sub-circular scrapers flaked pieces used pieces 10% Figure 71: Pie chart showing Secondary technology components from Freestone Hill, Co. Kilkenny Lough Eskragh Site B, B1 and B2, Co. Tyrone (Late Bronze Age Crannóg) Lough Eskragh, Co. Tyrone, (Collins and Seaby 1960, Williams 1978) dates broadly to the Late Bronze Age period based upon material finds and radiocarbon determinations. This site is a Crannóg excavated in the 1950s and again in the 1970s. Overall, the finds included: sword moulds, crucibles, socketed axe moulds, anvils, wooden vessels resembling Coarse Ware pots and a radiocarbon date range of c BC. A fairly small assemblage, of 31 lithic pieces, was analysed from reasonably secure contexts, some other flints were natural. Site A (earlier excavation), revealed a polished stone axe associated with some burnt flints. The later excavation revealed a number of lithics on the lake-shore including two Late Neolithic type-fossils and some more flint, quartzite lumps and gneiss material, although these were horizontally associated across Sites B, B1 and B2. 125

126 Primary technology The 31 lithics are fairly poor quality pieces, several of which were patinated, some burnt. Three pieces were quartz lumps and some other material that could not be assigned to any particular category. Out of the total number of pieces that could be recognised as primary technology, 19 pieces account for 61 Per cent of the total collection. Bearing in mind the small quantity of lithic material, the results of the primary technology still shows a predominance of bipolar technology and although there were no platform primary pieces, there was a platform blade with retouch. Furthermore, although this category is sparse at Lough Eskragh, there were a number of earlier type-fossils as seen within other assemblages. Several of the bipolar cores may have been employed as tools, although their burnt, patinated and overall poor quality condition did not allow for the positive identification of use; although it was noted that most bipolar cores were pointed. The primary technology was comprised of 8 bipolar cores (41 Per cent); six bipolar flakes (32 Per cent), two pieces of micro-debitage (11 Per cent) and three were platform types representing 16 Per cent of the total primary technology (Figure 72). Proportion of primary (reduction) technology (flint) from Lough Eskragh (LBA-Dowris) (n=19) 16% 11% 41% bipolar cores bipolar flakes micro-debitage platform 32% Figure 72: Pie chart showing Primary technology components from Lough Eskragh, Co. Tyrone. Bipolar dimensions 126

127 Figure 73 shows that bipolar cores and bipolar flakes have a preference for dimensions of <40mm which is slightly unusual as most assemblage indicate that scalar flakes tend to occupy the lower dimensions compared to bipolar cores. Furthermore, the overall size of the flint bipolar pieces from Lough Eskragh is slightly larger than most other flint bipolar pieces with and begins to approximate the preferred dimensions for bipolar pieces found within the Middle Bronze Age site at *Corrstown, Co. Derry, and the Mid to Late Bronze Age site at *Ballyutoag, Co. Antrim, employing more nodular type flint. Dimensional frequency of bipolar technology (flint) from Lough Eskragh bipolar flakes bipolar cores Figure 73: Bar chart showing dimensions for bipolar pieces from Lough Eskragh assemblage, Co. Tyrone Secondary technology There were 10 items associated from Site A that are discernible as tools. These tools represent a high proportion of tools to the remaining assemblage at just over 30 Per cent, but this is a very small collection and is both unusual and reflective of other industries of the same general era. For instance, although Lough Eskragh, Co. Tyrone presented no scrapers of any type, it was dominated by utilised bipolar pieces representing eight pieces which accounts for 80 Per cent of the total tool collection (Figure 74). The remaining tool class from Lough Eskragh was a flint wellproduced knife made employing a platform core and the other was an otherwise unworked lump of flint with retouch. These flaked pieces represent 20 Per cent of total tool category (Figure 74). 127

128 Proportion of secondary (tools) technology from Lough Eskragh (LBA - Dowris) (n=10) 20% ad-hoc scrapers sub-circular scrapers flaked pieces used pieces 80% Figure 74: Pie chart showing Secondary technology components from Lough Eskragh, Co. Tyrone A polished stone axe, not included in the assessment of the chipped stone technology was also found within Site A. There are a few other lithics worth noting which were found during the later excavation of this site two ptd s (A Later Neolithic asymmetric type arrowhead found in Ireland). Again the stone axe has been highlighted within several other Middle Bronze Age contexts and Late Bronze Age sites as the three found at *Killymoon, Co. Tyrone; *Lugg, Co. Dublin; and the unstratified stone axe from *Haughey s Fort, Co. Armagh Late Bronze Age hillfort and the more clearly associated stone axes seen within the mid to Late Bronze Age village at *Corrstown, Co. Derry, and is seen clearly within this later period within the literature. Significantly earlier lithic type-fossils noted from a similar timeframe above and particularly the Neolithic types found within mid to later Bronze Age sites at *Killymoon, Co. Tyrone and *Rathgall, Co. Wicklow may all indicate possible reuse/recycling of earlier lithic tools within much later industries and again this is a pattern emerging within the later assemblages as seen within the literature which 128

129 will be outlined presently. Carrigillihy, Co. Cork, (c and BC) At first glance it would appear that an oval house and enclosure associated with Coarse Ware and the re-dating of old charcoal sample produced mid to Late Bronze Age dates, was purely domestic, however, the Carrigillihy, Co. Cork, (O Kelly 1951 and 1989) house was directly associated with a very small lithic assemblage found within a pit in the interior of the house which turned out to be fairly typical platform flakes which would be more at home in the Neolithic period. Furthermore, although a bronze awl was found in the entrance way, which may be spatially significant perhaps indicating some ritual deposit. As this item is much older than the actual date of the house, and was therefore originally believed to be Early Bronze Age, on the basis of the Coarse Ware (Lough Gur Class II) pottery found at the site it is now generally accepted as belonging to the latter part of the Bronze Age (see Cleary 1993, 1995 and 2003). There was also a fragment of a bronze socketed axe recovered (unstratified) from Carrigillihy and, interestingly, this reflects a similar find from *Killymoon, Co. Tyrone, noted above. The portion of the bronze axe would support the Later Bronze Age date of the site. This is confirmed by the radiocarbon dates from the site confirms this from the dating of old samples of charcoal, c and BC, this site is now firmly placed in the latter part of the Bronze Age (O Kelly 1989). The very small flint assemblage from this fairly confusing context may represent a ritual deposit within the interior pit of the house/structure. Therefore, although it is a very different technology to most other Bronze Age lithic technologies discussed thus far; nevertheless, it may represent some symbolic reference or ancestral link. The important aspect of this small collection from Carrigillihy is that it demonstrates that when lithic technologies are sought within and throughout the Bronze Age period; these are invariably found and depending upon the nature of the contexts; sometimes these represent ritual activity rather than domestic activity and this theme is seen in a number of other contexts particularly relating to the later phases within the Bronze Age which will be seen below. 129

130 Ballinderry, No. 2, Co. Offaly (Crannóg Late Bronze Age) A crannog with Dowris type material at Ballinderry No. 2, Co. Offaly (Hencken 1942] in the form of bronze working, awls, rings, flesh hooks, a sunflower pin, socketed knife, amber beads and bone work, also produced lithic material, although again this is an extremely small collection, nevertheless this assemblage proved quite informative. Other than the socketed knife, the other metal finds would not have been very useful as everyday tools. However, the small flint assemblage is quite interesting and consists of only five flints: an amorphous core, a burnt blade and no fewer than three pieces that represent secondary technology in the form of two utilised flakes (platform types) and a flaked blade-like flint. The burnt blade and the socketed metal knife may have some significance as ritually deposited as it seems unlikely that other metal pieces in the form of ornaments and weaponry would be just dropped or left behind at these sites and perhaps the lithics, which are often burnt, are also part of this ritual activity. The bone tools are also of interest at this time and are known from other broadly contemporaneous collections. This small assemblage is again platform dominated and may reflect recycled or more likely: ritually deposited objects. The nature of the lithic material is reminiscent of that discussed above in relation to the *Carrigillihy assemblage which may also represent a ritual/ancestral deposit within an otherwise Bronze Age context. This practice is fairly common at this late stage in the Bronze Age as seen in the funerary record of this time (O Hare 2005). Bay Farm III, Co. Antrim (Late Bronze Age coastal settlement and reuse of Late Mesolithic industry) Another unusual type of lithic assemblage of the Late Bronze Age period can be seen at Bay Farm III, Co. Antrim, (Courtesy of Mallory QUB) and it is noted that: Amidst the evidence for Early Bronze Age burials at Bay Farm III near Carnlough, Co. Antrim, there was also evidence for Late Bronze Age settlement on this rather exposed stretch of the coast (Mallory and Mc Neill 1991). The Bay Farm III associated flint assemblage was relatively large and was assessed as part of the Bronze Age study. The collection was not much different to any other classic Late Mesolithic heavy, blade and fully patinated industry commonly found in this region. Given its Late Bronze Age context, it could very well represent a convenient, ready-made flint resource for the people inhabiting this locality some five millennia after the artefacts were made. As indicated above in a 130

131 number of cases and seen within some of the lithic collections from written sources reviewed below, the re-use of earlier type-fossils or indeed entire assemblages made in antiquity compared to their secondary use within later Bronze Age sites is not uncommon. Post Early Bronze Age assemblages (Mid to Late Bronze Age) from the written record Most lithic collections dating to the latter stages of the Bronze Age, listed below and drawn from the written record, generally reflect the mainstay technology associated with Bronze Age sites in being predominantly bipolar reduced, fairly ad hoc and certainly a number of more formal and therefore recognisable artefacts are noted in these reports which, support such types established directly by examination of later Bronze Age assemblages reviewed earlier. There were a number of lithic collections associated with Middle and Late Bronze Age radiocarbon dates and/or ceramics which is not included below as the information within site reports was too vague, and/or the collections were not available for analysis at the time of the doctoral study of Irish Bronze Age lithic technology. However, hopefully the above assessment of actual datable lithic collections analysed by the present writer has demonstrated that the bewildering array of lithic material found at these sites can be understood once it is fully and openly investigated. Within written accounts, like those relating to the earlier phases of the Bronze Age, these tend to focus on formal and consequently more recognisable technology and tools. However, it should be said that the written information relating to this latter part of the Bronze Age were marginally more informative, particularly regarding the more expedient technology and these in turn give good support to the patterns of lithic use identified within the direct analysis of assemblages of the post BC era. The patterns of expediency identified within the earlier assemblages continue throughout the first age of metallurgy and it should be borne in mind that a good deal of obviously Bronze Age lithic collections could not be included directly within this present survey as their particular affiliations to specific phases of the new metal era could not be specified. Therefore, presumably these patterns of lithic technology 131

132 should be seen within other General Bronze Age assemblages that have not been outlined here. As can be seen from the above direct analysis of several diverse and sometimes fairly large assemblages dating to the Developed Bronze Age, there is no shortage of lithic technology from sites of the Middle or Late Bronze Age period. The directly analysed collections of the later prehistoric period are more prolific than the earlier phases of the first age of metallurgy due to the fact that there were less stratigraphic issues for the later collections and as noted before: the amount of sites emerging as part of the developer led excavations have revealed a great deal more activity of the Developed Bronze Age than previously recognised; aided greatly by the reevaluation of the ceramic sequence for this later period. The main patterns of lithic technology as could be established from the written record are listed below running according to the main types of technology found. Ballydown, Co. Antrim (LBA coastal site) A close correspondence between a directly assessed assemblages and the written record, followed up by direct contact with the excavator (Crothers pers. Comm.), can be seen between*bay Farm III, Co. Antrim and a similar assemblage from the contemporary site at Ballydown in the same County. The Ballydown assemblage is fairly large and was derived from a Late Bronze Age contexts found to be overlapping and adjacent to a Late Mesolithic area (Moore 2002). Again like the *Bay Farm III lithic collection, this was characteristic of Late Mesolithic forms. Furthermore, the re-use of some of the material from this earlier industry is strongly suggested within the Bronze Age horizon of Ballydown which can be seen in the post-patination flaking of many pieces (Moore, per. comm.). It is perhaps worth reiterating the re-use of comparatively ancient artefacts found within much later Bronze Age sites as recorded by the writer. Sites such as: *Killymoon, Co. Tyrone, where a form of a possible Bann flake and perhaps the platform core is also of this period were recovered along with more typical Bronze Age lithic forms. In particular, the evidence for re-use of earlier type-fossils as seen in the presence of significantly earlier artefacts and tools created thousands of years earlier, has certainly has muddied the waters of classification. Cullyhanna, Co. Armagh (Lakeside settlement MBA) Another case in point where earlier type-fossils are found within otherwise later Bronze Age contexts can be seen at a lakeside settlement at Cullyhanna, Co. Armagh 132

133 (Hodges 1958) with dendro-dating (Hillam 1976) approximating to the Middle Bronze Age period. There were a few lithics associated with this site, which had some possible Bronze Age forms, although the others were a mix of much earlier type-fossils. These included strike-a-lights associated with a hollow scraper - a Middle/Late Neolithic type-fossil and blade core also indicative of a much earlier period than the Middle Bronze Age date of this site. Re-use of earlier lithic artefacts is indicated in other written reports from mid to Late Bronze Age sites. However, the main thrust of this technology tends to reflect the predominant ad hoc, bipolar reduced and bipolar produced tools seen within most of the domestic sites of all phases of the Bronze Age assessed directly by the present writer. The following sites proved quite informative and supportive of the directly analysed lithic material of the Developed Bronze Age. Lough Enagh site 1, Co. Derry, (Crannóg site relating to the LBA) Often detective work is required in order to decipher the evidence for bipolar technology embedded within the lithic reports relating to Bronze Age sites containing lithics. This can be seen within the report for Lough Enagh site 1, Co. Derry, crannog (Davies 1941). The pottery is described as Iron Age, and many of the earliest excavated sites with Coarse Ware were often considered to be of the latest prehistoric period, but now becoming clearly recognised as belonging to the latter stages of the Bronze Age. The excavator describes the associated lithic material: There was also found near the surface several flakes of flint from pebble and from nodules, both burnt and unburnt; their rough trimming is characteristic of the iron-age, while some are battered as if used for heavy woodworking. There are probably two rounded scrapers. One is much burnt; the other (no. 3, fig. 3) is probably struck from a pebble (Davies 1941, 92). Davis also notes a looped bronze spearhead which was found near the site but not from excavation. Therefore, scrapers struck from pebbles and the general characteristics of the crude material noted by Davis would seem to indicate technologies to those clearly established for other Bronze Age collections as assessed by the present writer. Cloghers, Co. Tyrone, (Hillfort - Dowris LBA) Another case in point regarding the possibility of bipolar reduction within a late context can also be seen at a hillfort at Cloghers, Co. Tyrone. This hillfort dates to the Late Bronze Age with associated Coarse Ware and radiocarbon date ranges of c BC, this relatively large flint assemblage and was characterised by seemingly re- 133

134 used borers/awls made into strike-a-lights (Warner, per. comm.). Interestingly, in retrospect, now having learned more about bipolar technology, these so-called strike-a-lights, awls and borers could just as easily be used bipolar cores. Belderg Beg 7, Co. Mayo (MBA-LBA possible round house structure) A Late Bronze site indicates some important associated lithics, but only scrapers are noted and not their types. The site at Belderg Beg 7, Co. Mayo (Caulfield 1978) may relate to the round house at Belderg Beg 6, along with saddle querns and possible evidence for tillage. The date ranges for these sites are broadly Later Bronze Age. The charcoal spread from Belderg Beg 7 was associated with flints in the form of several scrapers which had a radiocarbon date ranges from c BC (Caulfield 1978 and Woodman 1992). Unfortunately no other information is forthcoming regarding the type of scraper recovered from this context, but they would presumably be of Bronze Age type. The following site has much clearer information regarding the full range of lithic technology. Chancellorsland, Site A, Co. Tipperary, (Middle Bronze Age enclosure) For instance, a detailed lithics report was available regarding the overall technology from an enclosed site dating to the Middle Bronze Age period at Chancellorsland Site A, Co. Tipperary (Doody 1993a, 1994, 1995, 1995a, 1996, 1996a) (Information courtesy of Martin Doody of Discovery Programme and specialist lithic report by Finlay and Woodman 2001), updated information online: Doody (2003), proved quite informative regarding most aspects of lithic technology already identified from the direct analysis. This enclosure of a slightly earlier phase in the Bronze Age has parallels with both the directly analysed material and some of the technologies indicated in the literature above as seen above. Site A, is a double ditched enclosure where a number of features were excavated relating to domestic activity representing at least two phases although both appear to correspond to a broadly Middle Bronze Age date with radiocarbon determinations concentrating around BC. It is important to point out that although there is no evidence of metal processing or related paraphernalia at this site for the production of metal tools, there is evidence for the use metal blades on some wood at this site. The main pottery associated with this site is Coarse Ware distributed throughout 134

135 the site along with finds included Coarse Ware type pottery, flint, chert, struck crystal quartz. The assemblage contained 506 mainly chert pieces recovered from the site and a fairly detailed analysis of the collection was carried out by Finlay and Woodman (2001). The lithics from Chancellorland lithic collection is also fairly homogenous. The primary technology would appear judging by the assessment of the report to represent 93 per cent which is a fairly high proportion of primary technology component found within the *Corrstown, Co. Derry, assemblage dating to the Middle Bronze Age period as directly analysed by the present writer and presented earlier. However, saying that, the unmodified technology is not recorded within the lithic report. The primary technology from Chancellorsland are described as dominated by chunks and flakes and there was also a suggestion of reused pieces and several burnt pieces were noted, associated with a small element of conventional core material, but most importantly, the cores were mainly bipolar types and several exhibit characteristics that might suggest use. The tools are represented by 35 modified pieces which include 17 scrapers, mainly invasive steeply flaked rounded types, along with one possibly re-used piece as seen in the post-patinated flaking. Some of the tools from this site indicated the re-use or the re-working of earlier pieces as noted by Finlay and Woodman (2001, 3). As seen above, the re-use of earlier lithic material and existing tools manufactured in much earlier times is not unusual. For example, the tool kit from Chancellorsland also included tools that were more typically associated with the Middle/Late Neolithic period in Ireland, namely a concave/hollow scraper and a leaf-shaped arrowhead, typical of perhaps the earlier Neolithic period. It is worth pointing out that a concave scraper was also found at a broadly contemporaneous site at *Ballyarnet, Co. Derry as outlined in the direct analysis section of this chapter. The collection from Chancellorsland, Site A, Co. Tipperary contained fairly standardised sub-circular scrapers, and these were fairly common within a number of the assemblages analysed directly by the writer and particularly those from the earlier phases of the Bronze Age where standardised forms were more predominant than the crude scraper forms commonly found to dominate the Late Bronze Age assemblages. Another interesting feature of the Chancellorsland collection is the fact that no less than five typical Bronze Age arrowhead tanged forms, were recovered. Again, although arrowheads of the Bronze Age varieties are not uncommon within post-early Bronze Age domestic contexts, this quantity on one site is fairly unusual 135

136 at this late period, certainly within secular a secular context at this time. Two of the arrowheads are noted as being the smaller barbed and tanged types (92E128: 1458 and 1340). In addition to the tanged forms, there was also a leaf-shaped arrowhead type, which again, reflects the fairly common occurrence of earlier tools/weaponry found sporadically amongst otherwise ad hoc, bipolar reduced and bipolar type tools typical within most Bronze Age domestic contexts. Another aspect of the Chancellorsland site that is worth noting is that, although there was direct evidence for the use of metal tools or their manufacture within this site, as is the case with so many of the lithic-rich domestic contexts discussed thus far, there was some indirect evidence from Chancellorsland for the use of metal blades being employed. The Middle Bronze Age site at *Ballyarnet, Co. Derry also revealed evidence of cut marks made by metal blades as did the timbers from the Mount Gabriel copper mining site broadly dating to the end of the Early Bronze Age through to the Middle Bronze Age period. This is outlined below. Mount Gabriel, Co. Cork, (Copper mine spanning the end of the Late Early and beginning of Middle Bronze Age) At a copper mine which saw its main use from c BC at Mount Gabriel, Co. Cork, O Brien has identified cut marks made with metal blades. However, there was also some blade marks consistent with stone blades and both forms of cut marks were seen on several pieces of wood-fuel directly associated with contemporaneous use of the mines (O Brien 2003). The important aspect to consider in the evidence for polished stone axes within these later contexts is that these may have been manufactured during earlier times; although this does not militate against their functionality within these later contexts, at least in conjunction with metal axes and/or palstaves. Knocknalappa, Co. Clare, (Mid to Late Bronze Age Crannóg site) The three polished stone axes from *Killymoon, Co. Tyrone, dating to the mid to Late Bronze Age period are worth noting at this point and the polished stone axe from Knocknalappa, Co. Clare, (Raftery 1942, Grogan et al 1999). This site was generally associated with Coarse Ware pottery and the radiocarbon determinations returned a Middle Bronze Age date range BC (see Grogan et al 1999). However, some of the metalwork from this site suggested dates towards the latter part of the Late Bronze Age period as seen in the finds such as Class 4 sword and bronze gouge. 136

137 It seems unlikely that items like these would be simply left behind and perhaps it may make more sense to view these items as possible ritual deposits so commonly seen in this time period adjacent or within watery contexts. A number of lithics recovered may have been associated with some of the Middle or even Late Bronze Age activity, although these were too fragmentary to assess and had fairly poor contexts, although the stone axe was associated with the above material and may represent a ritual deposit which is not uncommon within non-secular contexts of this time (O Hare 2005). The presence of stone axes within late contexts can be seen at another Crannóg site assessed directly by the present writer and outlined in terms of bipolar reduction in the earlier section of this chapter can be seen at *Lough Eskragh Site B, B1 and B2, Co. Tyrone, dating broadly to the Late Bronze Age period based upon material finds and radiocarbon determinations and the *Lugg, Co. Dublin, polished stone axe derived from a mid to Late Bronze Age context should be also be added to this expanding corpus of stone axes of the later prehistoric period. It is also of interest that a portion of a polished stone axe made of mudstone were associated with a large fully bipolar chert lithic assemblage came from *Leedaun, Area II, Co. Mayo, dating to c BC and the Middle Bronze Age stone axes including a miniature form from *Corrstown, Co. Derry. Another late context for polished stone axes can be seen within the mid to Late Bronze Age site at *Killymoon, Co. Tyrone, where three were recovered and seem to have been well used and within a Crannóg site with radiocarbon determinations dating to the Middle Bronze Age period, although Late Bronze Age metalwork was also recovered from Knocknalappa, Co. Clare, (Raftery 1942, Grogan et. al 1999). The Crannóg site at *Lough Eskragh Site B, B1 and B2, Co. Tyrone, also contained a polished stone axe which broadly dates to the Late Bronze Age period and another mid to Late Bronze Age site at *Lugg, Co. Dublin, revealed a polished stone axe. More examples can be found throughout the following assessment of Middle and Late Bronze Age sites, which strongly suggests that stone axes, even if they were manufactured in earlier times, seem to remain an important part of the domestic toolkit within the latter part of the Bronze Age. Meadowlands, Co. Down (MBA round houses) Further evidence for stone axes remaining a part of the overall lithic tool-kit within domestic sites of the Developed Bronze Age can be seen at Meadowlands, Co. Down, as recorded by Pollock and Waterman (1964). This site had round house 137

138 structures and is surprisingly similar in its assemblage composition and ratio although again quite a small assemblage and here a fine porcellanite axe (Figure 75) was also found along with a few sub-circular scrapers. Figure 75: Broken porcellanite polished stone axe (1) from Meadowlands, Co. Down, (after Pollock and Waterman 1964, fig. 13, 1) Within the Middle Bronze Age period particularly in association with Cordoned Urn type pottery, rounded scrapers and arrowheads continue to form an important part of the tool-kit. As seen again from the Middle Bronze Age site at Meadowlands, Co. Down, (Pollock and Waterman 1964), although only the more formal tools are noted, but these are of interest as they reflect some of the more formal aspects of other Bronze Age collections. This domestic site revealed an end scraper and bladetype scraper, which may be Neolithic types and only two sub-circular scrapers which are particular comparable to those from many other Bronze Age types (Figure 76). Some of these items are fairly similar to those recovered from the contemporary site at *Ballyarnet, Co. Derry, discussed in the direct analysis section earlier. Figure 76: Cordoned Urn Tradition (MBA) sub-circular flint scrapers from Meadowlands, Co. Down, (after Pollock and Waterman 1964, fig.13, 3 & 4). Sheepland, Co. Down, (MBA) Another porcellanite axe was recovered from a site within the same region as Meadowland at Sheepland, Co. Down, were sherds of the same Cordoned Urn pottery type were recovered from a much-disturbed area (Waterman 1975). 138

139 Harristown, Co. Louth, (Fulacht fiadh post-early Bronze Age) Fulachta fiadh or burnt mound features are a particularly fruitful site type of this general period as for example, Brindley et al ( ) show their main currency of use from around 1800 BC and extends into the Late Bronze Age, as also noted by Waddell (1998). Furthermore, the amount of artefacts recovered from these site as noted by O Néill (2000) is greater than generally recognised. For example, a fulacht fiadh at Harristown, Co. Louth, (Duffy 1999; Finlay 2002a) produced numerous flints along with several sherds of Bronze Age pottery and a part of a polished stone macehead (Duffy 1999). The stone mace head is totally in keeping with the Developed Bronze Age period, post Early Bronze Age scheme as employed in this present study, if it is not of a type associated with the Passage Tomb tradition of the Neolithic period. For instance, these objects are fairly commonly associated with special deposits such as funerary/ritual contexts from this period onwards in Ireland (O Hare 2005). The dating of specialised stone objects will hopefully be a topic of a future publication. However, in summary, maceheads in the context of the metal era are not known in Ireland associated with Beaker, Bowl or even Vase Traditions, but instead are a later introduction towards the latter part of the Early Bronze Age in association with Collared Urns, then Cordoned Urns with date ranges from c BC. Coolroe/Claremorris, Co. Mayo (fulachta fiadh sites possibly dating to the Developed Bronze Age) As indicated in the previous chapter relating to Beaker/Early Bronze Age contexts, a number of fulachta fiadh type sites were identified during excavations by Mayo County Council around the Coolroe/Claremorris region which had fairly abundant chert assemblages associated with these structures (Information courtesy of Gillespie and Walsh on behalf of Mayo County Council). As the lithic reports by Finlay (1998; 1999; 2000b and 2000c) strongly suggests a Bronze Age date for these finds, these may prove useful to follow up in the future in terms of the technology established for broadly contemporaneous collections within this present study. Fahee South, Co. Clare, (fulacht fiadh Middle Bronze Age) Another site of this type can be seen at Fahee South, Co. Clare with a radiocarbon determination of c BC (Brindley et al 1989/1990) obtained from this fulacht fiadh. Lithic material was also identified within the feature which according to Cherry who notes that the excavator of the site, listed finds of amber bead fragments, two flint scrapers along with two barbed and tanged arrowheads, one of 139

140 flint the other of chert (1990, 49-50). Braganstown, Co. Louth (Fulacht Fiadh Developed Bronze Age) Another case in point of lithic material being associated with Bronze Age fulachta fiadh features can be seen at Braganstown, Co. Louth. This site revealed quite a concentration of flint items within the feature (O Drisceoil 1999; Finlay 2000a). There were some 33 flint artefacts, including a characteristic Bronze Age barbed and tanged arrowhead was also found with a few rounded scrapers as noted in O Drisceoil s report (1999). There was also an earlier type-fossil as seen in a number of Bronze Age contexts noted above. This is a leaf-shaped arrowhead which would be typically associated with significantly earlier traditions in the Neolithic. It is perhaps reminiscent of the leaf-shaped type found amongst the otherwise Bronze Age arrowhead types from other contexts as for example the Middle Bronze Age enclosure from Chancellorsland A, Co. Tipperary outlined above in relation to the five tanged forms and the single leaf-shaped (Neolithic) arrowhead type. Drumwhinny, Co. Fermanagh, (late Early to Middle Bronze Age lake side find) Supporting the continued importance of Bronze Age arrowheads at this late point in the Bronze Age can be seen in the case of the Drumwhinny, Co. Fermanagh, bow made from yew. This bow was recovered from a bog produced AMS dates of 3220+/-70 BP, (OxA-2426) (Glover 1979; Hedges et al. 1991) and would calibrate to BC (Waddell 1998). The fact that the bow indicates contemporary archery is quite significant and strongly indicates the continued importance of archery even at this late point in the Irish Bronze Age. Other broadly contemporary domestic sites show evidence of arrowheads within lithic collections which may lend further support to this premise. Moynagh Lough (lake side finds) At Moynagh Lough, Co. Meath, a possible flake of an axe head was recovered associated with Cordoned Urn pottery with a radiocarbon date centring on 1500 BC (Bradley 1991, 1996 and 1997). There was also a barbed and tanged arrowhead that would fit Green s scheme of a Sutton c type (Figure 77). 140

141 Figure 77: A Sutton type C, barbed and tanged arrowhead (no. 228) associated with a Cordoned Urn sherd (no. 214) from Moynagh Lough, Co. Meath, (after Bradley 1991, fig. 4, no. 228) The Bronze Age type arrowheads found within the mid to Late Bronze Age sites from *Killymoon, Co. Tyrone, *Rathgall, Co. Wicklow, or *Ballyutoag, Co. Antrim, should be considered in this present survey. There were several instances of arrowheads associated with Bronze Age funerary contexts which form part of another publication (O Hare 2005), although simply by identifying the domestic contexts for arrowheads throughout the Bronze Age period shows that like earlier periods of prehistory that these typically make up a minimal component within assemblages, but within the metal era their occurrence does not seem to decline until after the Late Bronze Age period. Even within the later phases of the Bronze Age, where it could be established, arrowheads still are occasionally found. Balgatheran 1, Co. Louth (mid to later Bronze Age site) Parallels between the Middle and Later Bronze Age assemblages directly analysed can be drawn with another site at Balgatheran 1, Co. Louth, excavated by Chapple (2000) on behalf of Valerie Keeley Ltd., and lithics report by N. Finlay 2000). This may be a habitation or even a ritual site and contained mainly features in the form of pits and postholes. The ceramic report by Brindley (Chapple, per. comm.) places this tradition within the mid to Late Bronze Age period Coarse Ware tradition. The assemblage consists of 716 flint pieces, supplemented by chert. This assemblage seems to be, essentially, a bipolar industry consisting of 83 per cent for primary technology and reflects the same proportion as the *Leedaun II, Co. Mayo, assemblage relating to the Developed Bronze Age; the mid to Late Bronze Age collections from *Rathgall, Co. Wicklow, and the Beaker/Early Bronze Age 141

The lithic assemblage from Kingsdale Head (KH09)

The lithic assemblage from Kingsdale Head (KH09) 1 The lithic assemblage from Kingsdale Head (KH09) Hannah Russ Introduction During excavation the of potential Mesolithic features at Kingsdale Head in 2009 an assemblage of flint and chert artefacts were

More information

3.4 The prehistoric lithic assemblage by I.P. Brooks. Introduction. Raw materials. Distribution

3.4 The prehistoric lithic assemblage by I.P. Brooks. Introduction. Raw materials. Distribution 3.4 The prehistoric lithic assemblage by I.P. Brooks Introduction A total of 1656 flint and chert artefacts were recovered during the excavations at Fullerton. The majority of these were found in two trenches,

More information

Fieldwalking at Cottam 1994 (COT94F)

Fieldwalking at Cottam 1994 (COT94F) Fieldwalking at Cottam 1994 (COT94F) Tony Austin & Elizabeth Jelley (19 Jan 29) 1. Introduction During the winter of 1994 students from the Department of Archaeology at the University of York undertook

More information

Lanton Lithic Assessment

Lanton Lithic Assessment Lanton Lithic Assessment Dr Clive Waddington ARS Ltd The section headings in the following assessment report refer to those in the Management of Archaeological Projects (HBMC 1991), Appendix 4. 1. FACTUAL

More information

Specialist Report 11 Worked Flint by Hugo Anderson-Whymark

Specialist Report 11 Worked Flint by Hugo Anderson-Whymark London Gateway Iron Age and Roman Salt Making in the Thames Estuary Excavation at Stanford Wharf Nature Reserve, Essex Specialist Report 11 Worked Flint by Hugo Anderson-Whymark Specialist Report 11 Worked

More information

Bronze Age 2, BC

Bronze Age 2, BC Bronze Age 2,000-600 BC There may be continuity with the Neolithic period in the Early Bronze Age, with the harbour being used for seasonal grazing, and perhaps butchering and hide preparation. In the

More information

DEMARCATION OF THE STONE AGES.

DEMARCATION OF THE STONE AGES. 20 HAMPSHIRE FLINTS. DEMARCATION OF THE STONE AGES. BY W, DALE, F.S.A., F.G.S. (Read before the Anthropological Section of -the British Association for the advancement of Science, at Birmingham, September

More information

CHAPTER 14. Conclusions. Nicky Milner, Barry Taylor and Chantal Conneller

CHAPTER 14. Conclusions. Nicky Milner, Barry Taylor and Chantal Conneller PA RT 6 Conclusions In conclusion it is only fitting to emphasise that, useful though the investigations at Star Carr have been in helping to fill a gap in the prehistory of north-western Europe, much

More information

SERIATION: Ordering Archaeological Evidence by Stylistic Differences

SERIATION: Ordering Archaeological Evidence by Stylistic Differences SERIATION: Ordering Archaeological Evidence by Stylistic Differences Seriation During the early stages of archaeological research in a given region, archaeologists often encounter objects or assemblages

More information

JAAH 2019 No 24 Trier Christiansen Logbook

JAAH 2019 No 24 Trier Christiansen Logbook JAAH 2019 No 24 Trier Christiansen Logbook Torben Trier Christiansen, Metal-detected Late Iron Age and Early Medieval Brooches from the Limfjord Region, Northern Jutland: Production, Use and Loss. 2019.

More information

KNAP OF HOWAR HISTORIC ENVIRONMENT SCOTLAND STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE. Property in Care (PIC) ID: PIC301 Designations:

KNAP OF HOWAR HISTORIC ENVIRONMENT SCOTLAND STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE. Property in Care (PIC) ID: PIC301 Designations: Property in Care (PIC) ID: PIC301 Designations: Scheduled Monument (SM90195) Taken into State care: 1954 (Guardianship) Last reviewed: 2004 HISTORIC ENVIRONMENT SCOTLAND STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE KNAP

More information

3. The new face of Bronze Age pottery Jacinta Kiely and Bruce Sutton

3. The new face of Bronze Age pottery Jacinta Kiely and Bruce Sutton 3. The new face of Bronze Age pottery Jacinta Kiely and Bruce Sutton Illus. 1 Location map of Early Bronze Age site at Mitchelstown, Co. Cork (based on the Ordnance Survey Ireland map) A previously unknown

More information

Evidence for the use of bronze mining tools in the Bronze Age copper mines on the Great Orme, Llandudno

Evidence for the use of bronze mining tools in the Bronze Age copper mines on the Great Orme, Llandudno Evidence for the use of bronze mining tools in the Bronze Age copper mines on the Great Orme, Llandudno Background The possible use of bronze mining tools has been widely debated since the discovery of

More information

THE CLASSIFICATION OF CHALCOLITHIC AND EARLY BRONZE AGE COPPER AND BRONZE AXE-HEADS FROM SOUTHERN BRITAIN BY STUART NEEDHAM

THE CLASSIFICATION OF CHALCOLITHIC AND EARLY BRONZE AGE COPPER AND BRONZE AXE-HEADS FROM SOUTHERN BRITAIN BY STUART NEEDHAM The Prehistoric Society Book Reviews THE CLASSIFICATION OF CHALCOLITHIC AND EARLY BRONZE AGE COPPER AND BRONZE AXE-HEADS FROM SOUTHERN BRITAIN BY STUART NEEDHAM Archaeopress Access Archaeology. 2017, 74pp,

More information

Cambridge Archaeology Field Group. Fieldwalking on the Childerley Estate, Cambridgeshire. Autumn 2014 to Spring Third interim report

Cambridge Archaeology Field Group. Fieldwalking on the Childerley Estate, Cambridgeshire. Autumn 2014 to Spring Third interim report Cambridge Archaeology Field Group Fieldwalking on the Childerley Estate, Cambridgeshire Autumn 2014 to Spring 2015 Third interim report Summary Field walking on the Childerley estate of Martin Jenkins

More information

Novington, Plumpton East Sussex

Novington, Plumpton East Sussex Novington, Plumpton East Sussex The Flint Over 1000 pieces of flintwork were recovered during the survey, and are summarised in Table 0. The flint is of the same types as found in the previous survey of

More information

St Germains, Tranent, East Lothian: the excavation of Early Bronze Age remains and Iron Age enclosed and unenclosed settlements

St Germains, Tranent, East Lothian: the excavation of Early Bronze Age remains and Iron Age enclosed and unenclosed settlements Proc Soc Antiq Scot, 128 (1998), 203-254 St Germains, Tranent, East Lothian: the excavation of Early Bronze Age remains and Iron Age enclosed and unenclosed settlements Derek Alexander* & Trevor Watkinsf

More information

METALLURGY IN THE BRONZE AGE TELL SETTLEMENTS

METALLURGY IN THE BRONZE AGE TELL SETTLEMENTS ALEXANDRU IOAN CUZA UNIVERSITY, IAŞI FACULTY OF HISTORY DOCTORAL SCHOOL METALLURGY IN THE BRONZE AGE TELL SETTLEMENTS FROM THE CARPATHIAN BASIN (Abstract) Scientific supervisor: Prof. univ. dr. ATTILA

More information

Roger Bland Roman gold coins in Britain. ICOMON e-proceedings (Utrecht, 2008) 3 (2009), pp Downloaded from:

Roger Bland Roman gold coins in Britain. ICOMON e-proceedings (Utrecht, 2008) 3 (2009), pp Downloaded from: Roger Bland Roman gold coins in Britain ICOMON e-proceedings (Utrecht, 2008) 3 (2009), pp. 31-43 Downloaded from: www.icomon.org Roman gold coins in Britain Roger Bland Head of Portable Antiquities & Treasure

More information

Fieldwalk On Falmer Hill, Near Brighton - Second Season

Fieldwalk On Falmer Hill, Near Brighton - Second Season Fieldwalk On Falmer Hill, Near Brighton - Second Season by the Brighton and Hove Archaeological Society This report as well as describing the recent fieldwalks also includes descriptions of previous discoveries

More information

Excavations at Shikarpur, Gujarat

Excavations at Shikarpur, Gujarat Excavations at Shikarpur, Gujarat 2008-2009 The Department of Archaeology and Ancient History, the M. S. University of Baroda continued excavations at Shikarpur in the second field season in 2008-09. In

More information

A Fieldwalking Project At Sompting. West Sussex

A Fieldwalking Project At Sompting. West Sussex by John Funnell Introduction A Fieldwalking Project At Sompting. West Sussex During March -and April 1995 the Brighton and Hove Archaeological Society conducted fie1dwa1king in a field at Sompting West

More information

A Sense of Place Tor Enclosures

A Sense of Place Tor Enclosures A Sense of Place Tor Enclosures Tor enclosures were built around six thousand years ago (4000 BC) in the early part of the Neolithic period. They are large enclosures defined by stony banks sited on hilltops

More information

Fort Arbeia and the Roman Empire in Britain 2012 FIELD REPORT

Fort Arbeia and the Roman Empire in Britain 2012 FIELD REPORT Fort Arbeia and the Roman Empire in Britain 2012 FIELD REPORT Background Information Lead PI: Paul Bidwell Report completed by: Paul Bidwell Period Covered by this report: 17 June to 25 August 2012 Date

More information

39, Walnut Tree Lane, Sudbury (SUY 073) Planning Application No. B/04/02019/FUL Archaeological Monitoring Report No. 2005/112 OASIS ID no.

39, Walnut Tree Lane, Sudbury (SUY 073) Planning Application No. B/04/02019/FUL Archaeological Monitoring Report No. 2005/112 OASIS ID no. 39, Walnut Tree Lane, Sudbury (SUY 073) Planning Application No. B/04/02019/FUL Archaeological Monitoring Report No. 2005/112 OASIS ID no. 9273 Summary Sudbury, 39, Walnut Tree Lane, Sudbury (TL/869412;

More information

Church of St Peter and St Paul, Great Missenden, Buckinghamshire

Church of St Peter and St Paul, Great Missenden, Buckinghamshire Church of St Peter and St Paul, Great Missenden, Buckinghamshire An Archaeological Watching Brief for the Parish of Great Missenden by Andrew Taylor Thames Valley Archaeological Services Ltd Site Code

More information

Colchester Archaeological Trust Ltd. A Fieldwalking Survey at Birch, Colchester for ARC Southern Ltd

Colchester Archaeological Trust Ltd. A Fieldwalking Survey at Birch, Colchester for ARC Southern Ltd Colchester Archaeological Trust Ltd A Fieldwalking Survey at Birch, Colchester for ARC Southern Ltd November 1997 CONTENTS page Summary... 1 Background... 1 Methods... 1 Retrieval Policy... 2 Conditions...

More information

Australian Archaeology

Australian Archaeology Australian Archaeology Full Citation Details: Frankel, D. 1980. Munsell colour notation in ceramic description: an experiment. 'Australian Archaeology', no.10, 33-37. MUNSELL COLOUR NOTATION IN CERAMIC

More information

Test-Pit 3: 31 Park Street (SK )

Test-Pit 3: 31 Park Street (SK ) -Pit 3: 31 Park Street (SK 40732 03178) -Pit 3 was excavated in a flower bed in the rear garden of 31 Park Street, on the northern side of the street and west of an alleyway leading to St Peter s Church,

More information

RESULTS AND INTERPRETATION

RESULTS AND INTERPRETATION CHAPTER 6 RESULTS AND INTERPRETATION 6.1 INTRODUCTION Chapter 6 deals with the factor analysis results and the interpretation of the factors identified for the product category lipstick and the three advertisements

More information

Archaeological Material From Spa Ghyll Farm, Aldfield

Archaeological Material From Spa Ghyll Farm, Aldfield Archaeological Material From Spa Ghyll Farm, Aldfield Introduction Following discussions with Linda Smith the Rural Archaeologist for North Yorkshire County Council, Robert Morgan of 3D Archaeological

More information

PREHISTORIC ARTEFACT BOX

PREHISTORIC ARTEFACT BOX PREHISTORIC ARTEFACT BOX PREHISTORIC ARTEFACT BOX: COMPLETE BOX 1 Antler Retoucheur 11 Leather Cup 2 Flint Retoucheur 12 Flint Scrapers [1 large & 4 x small] in pouch 3 Hammer Stone 13 Flint Arrowheads

More information

Evolution of the Celts Unetice Predecessors of Celts BCE Cultural Characteristics:

Evolution of the Celts Unetice Predecessors of Celts BCE Cultural Characteristics: Evolution of the Celts Unetice Predecessors of Celts 2500-2000 BCE Associated with the diffusion of Proto-Germanic and Proto-Celto-Italic speakers. Emergence of chiefdoms. Long-distance trade in bronze,

More information

An archaeological watching brief and recording at Brightlingsea Quarry, Moverons Lane, Brightlingsea, Essex October 2003

An archaeological watching brief and recording at Brightlingsea Quarry, Moverons Lane, Brightlingsea, Essex October 2003 An archaeological watching brief and recording at Brightlingsea Quarry, Moverons Lane, Brightlingsea, Essex commissioned by Mineral Services Ltd on behalf of Alresford Sand & Ballast Co Ltd report prepared

More information

ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVALUATION AT BRIGHTON POLYTECHNIC, NORTH FIELD SITE, VARLEY HALLS, COLDEAN LANE, BRIGHTON. by Ian Greig MA AIFA.

ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVALUATION AT BRIGHTON POLYTECHNIC, NORTH FIELD SITE, VARLEY HALLS, COLDEAN LANE, BRIGHTON. by Ian Greig MA AIFA. ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVALUATION AT BRIGHTON POLYTECHNIC, NORTH FIELD SITE, VARLEY HALLS, COLDEAN LANE, BRIGHTON by Ian Greig MA AIFA May 1992 South Eastern Archaeological Services Field Archaeology Unit White

More information

Kandy Period Bronze Buddha Images of Sri Lanka: Visual and Technological Styles

Kandy Period Bronze Buddha Images of Sri Lanka: Visual and Technological Styles Kandy Period Bronze Buddha Images of Sri Lanka: Visual and Technological Styles Arjuna Thantilage Senior Lecturer, Coordinator, Laboratory for Cultural Material Analysis (LCMA), Postgraduate Institute

More information

SALVAGE EXCAVATIONS AT OLD DOWN FARM, EAST MEON

SALVAGE EXCAVATIONS AT OLD DOWN FARM, EAST MEON Proc. Hants. Field Club Archaeol. Soc. 36, 1980, 153-160. 153 SALVAGE EXCAVATIONS AT OLD DOWN FARM, EAST MEON By RICHARD WHINNEY AND GEORGE WALKER INTRODUCTION The site was discovered by chance in December

More information

Cambridge Archaeology Field Group. Fieldwalking on the Childerley Estate Cambridgeshire

Cambridge Archaeology Field Group. Fieldwalking on the Childerley Estate Cambridgeshire Cambridge Archaeology Field Group Fieldwalking on the Childerley Estate Cambridgeshire 2009 to 2014 Summary Fieldwalking on the Childerley estate of Martin Jenkins and Family has revealed, up to March

More information

TABLE OF CONTENTS. Chronology... 2 Overview and Aims chapter 1

TABLE OF CONTENTS. Chronology... 2 Overview and Aims chapter 1 TABLE OF CONTENTS List of Tables................................... List of Figures.................................. Acknowledgments................................ Site Name Abbreviations.............................

More information

7. Prehistoric features and an early medieval enclosure at Coonagh West, Co. Limerick Kate Taylor

7. Prehistoric features and an early medieval enclosure at Coonagh West, Co. Limerick Kate Taylor 7. Prehistoric features and an early medieval enclosure at Coonagh West, Co. Limerick Kate Taylor Illus. 1 Location of the site in Coonagh West, Co. Limerick (based on the Ordnance Survey Ireland map)

More information

Monitoring Report No Sacred Heart Church Aghamore Boho Co. Fermanagh AE/10/116E. Brian Sloan L/2009/1262/F

Monitoring Report No Sacred Heart Church Aghamore Boho Co. Fermanagh AE/10/116E. Brian Sloan L/2009/1262/F Monitoring Report No. 202 Sacred Heart Church Aghamore Boho Co. Fermanagh AE/10/116E Brian Sloan L/2009/1262/F Site Specific Information Site Address: Sacred Heart Church, Aghamore, Boho, Co. Fermanagh

More information

WESTSIDE CHURCH (TUQUOY)

WESTSIDE CHURCH (TUQUOY) Property in Care (PIC) ID: PIC324 Designations: Scheduled Monument (SM90312) Taken into State care: 1933 (Guardianship) Last reviewed: 2004 HISTORIC ENVIRONMENT SCOTLAND STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE WESTSIDE

More information

The Iron Handle and Bronze Bands from Read's Cavern: A Re-interpretation

The Iron Handle and Bronze Bands from Read's Cavern: A Re-interpretation 46 THE IRON HANDLE AND BRONZE BANDS FROM READ'S CAVERN The Iron Handle and Bronze Bands from Read's Cavern: A Re-interpretation By JOHN X. W. P. CORCORAN. M.A. Since the publication of the writer's study

More information

THE RAVENSTONE BEAKER

THE RAVENSTONE BEAKER DISCOVERY THE RAVENSTONE BEAKER K. J. FIELD The discovery of the Ravenstone Beaker (Plate Xa Fig. 1) was made by members of the Wolverton and District Archaeological Society engaged on a routine field

More information

Censer Symbolism and the State Polity in Teotihuacán

Censer Symbolism and the State Polity in Teotihuacán FAMSI 2002: Saburo Sugiyama Censer Symbolism and the State Polity in Teotihuacán Research Year: 1998 Culture: Teotihuacán Chronology: Late Pre-Classic to Late Classic Location: Highland México Site: Teotihuacán

More information

IRAN. Bowl Northern Iran, Ismailabad Chalcolithic, mid-5th millennium B.C. Pottery (65.1) Published: Handbook, no. 10

IRAN. Bowl Northern Iran, Ismailabad Chalcolithic, mid-5th millennium B.C. Pottery (65.1) Published: Handbook, no. 10 Bowl Northern Iran, Ismailabad Chalcolithic, mid-5th millennium B.C. Pottery (65.1) IRAN Published: Handbook, no. 10 Bowl Iran, Tepe Giyan 2500-2000 B.C. Pottery (70.39) Pottery, which appeared in Iran

More information

Cetamura Results

Cetamura Results Cetamura 2000 2006 Results A major project during the years 2000-2006 was the excavation to bedrock of two large and deep units located on an escarpment between Zone I and Zone II (fig. 1 and fig. 2);

More information

Scientific evidences to show ancient lead trade with Tissamaharama Sri Lanka: A metallurgical study

Scientific evidences to show ancient lead trade with Tissamaharama Sri Lanka: A metallurgical study Scientific evidences to show ancient lead trade with Tissamaharama Sri Lanka: A metallurgical study Arjuna Thantilage Senior Lecturer, Coordinator, Laboratory for Cultural Material Analysis (LCMA), Postgraduate

More information

Changing People Changing Landscapes: excavations at The Carrick, Midross, Loch Lomond Gavin MacGregor, University of Glasgow

Changing People Changing Landscapes: excavations at The Carrick, Midross, Loch Lomond Gavin MacGregor, University of Glasgow Changing People Changing Landscapes: excavations at The Carrick, Midross, Loch Lomond Gavin MacGregor, University of Glasgow Located approximately 40 kilometres to the south-west of Oban, as the crow flies

More information

THE PRE-CONQUEST COFFINS FROM SWINEGATE AND 18 BACK SWINEGATE

THE PRE-CONQUEST COFFINS FROM SWINEGATE AND 18 BACK SWINEGATE THE PRE-CONQUEST COFFINS FROM 12 18 SWINEGATE AND 18 BACK SWINEGATE An Insight Report By J.M. McComish York Archaeological Trust for Excavation and Research (2015) Contents 1. INTRODUCTION... 3 2. THE

More information

STONES OF STENNESS HISTORIC ENVIRONMENT SCOTLAND STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE

STONES OF STENNESS HISTORIC ENVIRONMENT SCOTLAND STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE Property in Care (PIC) ID: PIC321 Designations: Scheduled Monument (SM90285); Taken into State care: 1906 (Guardianship) Last reviewed: 2003 HISTORIC ENVIRONMENT SCOTLAND STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE STONES

More information

While every reasonable attempt has been made to obtain permission to use the images reproduced in this article, it has not been possible to trace or contact the respective copyright holders. There has

More information

Contextualising Metal-Detected Discoveries: Staffordshire Anglo-Saxon Hoard

Contextualising Metal-Detected Discoveries: Staffordshire Anglo-Saxon Hoard Contextualising Metal-Detected Discoveries: Staffordshire Anglo-Saxon Hoard (Project 5892) Stage 2 Project Design Version 4 Submitted 9th January 2015 H.E.M. Cool Barbican Research Associates (Company

More information

Human remains from Estark, Iran, 2017

Human remains from Estark, Iran, 2017 Bioarchaeology of the Near East, 11:84 89 (2017) Short fieldwork report Human remains from Estark, Iran, 2017 Arkadiusz Sołtysiak *1, Javad Hosseinzadeh 2, Mohsen Javeri 2, Agata Bebel 1 1 Department of

More information

McDONALD INSTITUTE MONOGRAPHS. Spong Hill. Part IX: chronology and synthesis. By Catherine Hills and Sam Lucy

McDONALD INSTITUTE MONOGRAPHS. Spong Hill. Part IX: chronology and synthesis. By Catherine Hills and Sam Lucy McDONALD INSTITUTE MONOGRAPHS Spong Hill Part IX: chronology and synthesis By Catherine Hills and Sam Lucy with contributions from Mary Chester-Kadwell, Susanne Hakenbeck, Frances Healy, Kenneth Penn,

More information

Monitoring Report No. 99

Monitoring Report No. 99 Monitoring Report No. 99 Enniskillen Castle Co. Fermanagh AE/06/23 Cormac McSparron Site Specific Information Site Name: Townland: Enniskillen Castle Enniskillen SMR No: FER 211:039 Grid Ref: County: Excavation

More information

Chapter 2. Remains. Fig.17 Map of Krang Kor site

Chapter 2. Remains. Fig.17 Map of Krang Kor site Chapter 2. Remains Section 1. Overview of the Survey Area The survey began in January 2010 by exploring the site of the burial rootings based on information of the rooted burials that was brought to the

More information

Clothing longevity and measuring active use

Clothing longevity and measuring active use Summary Report Clothing longevity and measuring active use Results of consumer research providing a quantitative baseline to measure change in clothing ownership and use over time. This will inform work

More information

Life and Death at Beth Shean

Life and Death at Beth Shean Life and Death at Beth Shean by emerson avery Objects associated with daily life also found their way into the tombs, either as offerings to the deceased, implements for the funeral rites, or personal

More information

Color Harmony Plates. Planning Color Schemes. Designing Color Relationships

Color Harmony Plates. Planning Color Schemes. Designing Color Relationships Color Harmony Plates Planning Color Schemes Designing Color Relationships From Scheme to Palette Hue schemes (e.g. complementary, analogous, etc.) suggest only a particular set of hues a limited palette

More information

Search of Highland Sites & Monuments Record for Useable Mesolithic Information

Search of Highland Sites & Monuments Record for Useable Mesolithic Information ScARF Palaeolithic & Mesolithic Panel Search of Highland Sites & Monuments Record for Useable Mesolithic Information Steven A Birch Introduction At the first ScARF Palaeolithic and Mesolithic panel meeting,

More information

The Chalcolithic in the Near East: Mesopotamia and the Levant

The Chalcolithic in the Near East: Mesopotamia and the Levant The Chalcolithic in the Near East: Mesopotamia and the Levant Prof. Susan Pollock Institut für Vorderasiatische Archäologie, Freie Universität Berlin Department of Anthropology, Binghamton University Chronological

More information

period? The essay begins by outlining the divergence in opinion amongst scholars as to the

period? The essay begins by outlining the divergence in opinion amongst scholars as to the Abstract: The title of this essay is: How does the intensity and purpose of Viking raids on Irish church settlements in ninth century Ireland help to explain the objectives of the Vikings during that period?

More information

1 of 5 11/3/14 2:03 PM

1 of 5 11/3/14 2:03 PM Home About Us Laboratory Services Forensic Science Communications Back Issues July 2000 Hairs, Fibers, Crime, and Evidence, Part 2, by Deedrick... Hairs, Fibers, Crime, and Evidence Part 2: Fiber Evidence

More information

Research Paper No.2. Representation of Female Artists in Britain in 2016

Research Paper No.2. Representation of Female Artists in Britain in 2016 Research Paper No.2 Representation of Female Artists in Britain in 2016 The following report was commissioned by the Freelands Foundation. The intention of the report is to provide up-to-date data on the

More information

ST PATRICK S CHAPEL, ST DAVIDS PEMBROKESHIRE 2015

ST PATRICK S CHAPEL, ST DAVIDS PEMBROKESHIRE 2015 ST PATRICK S CHAPEL, ST DAVIDS PEMBROKESHIRE 2015 REPORT FOR THE NINEVEH CHARITABLE TRUST THE UNIVERSITY OF SHEFFIELD AND DYFED ARCHAEOLOGICAL TRUST Introduction ST PATRICK S CHAPEL, ST DAVIDS, PEMBROKESHIRE,

More information

Andrey Grinev, PhD student. Lomonosov Moscow State University REPORT ON THE PROJECT. RESEARCH of CULTURAL COMMUNICATIONS

Andrey Grinev, PhD student. Lomonosov Moscow State University REPORT ON THE PROJECT. RESEARCH of CULTURAL COMMUNICATIONS Andrey Grinev, PhD student Lomonosov Moscow State University REPORT ON THE PROJECT RESEARCH of CULTURAL COMMUNICATIONS between OLD RUS AND SCANDINAVIA in the LATE VIKING AGE (X-XI th centuries) (on materials

More information

Unit 3 Hair as Evidence

Unit 3 Hair as Evidence Unit 3 Hair as Evidence A. Hair as evidence a. Human hair is one of the most frequently pieces of evidence at the scene of a violent crime. Unfortunately, hair is not the best type of physical evidence

More information

A cultural perspective on Merovingian burial chronology and the grave goods from the Vrijthof and Pandhof cemeteries in Maastricht Kars, M.

A cultural perspective on Merovingian burial chronology and the grave goods from the Vrijthof and Pandhof cemeteries in Maastricht Kars, M. UvA-DARE (Digital Academic Repository) A cultural perspective on Merovingian burial chronology and the grave goods from the Vrijthof and Pandhof cemeteries in Maastricht Kars, M. Link to publication Citation

More information

Higher National Unit Specification. General information for centres. Fashion: Commercial Design. Unit code: F18W 34

Higher National Unit Specification. General information for centres. Fashion: Commercial Design. Unit code: F18W 34 Higher National Unit Specification General information for centres Unit title: Fashion: Commercial Design Unit code: F18W 34 Unit purpose: This Unit enables candidates to demonstrate a logical and creative

More information

Burrell Orchard 2014: Cleveland Archaeological Society Internship Amanda Ponomarenko The Ohio State University June - August 2014

Burrell Orchard 2014: Cleveland Archaeological Society Internship Amanda Ponomarenko The Ohio State University June - August 2014 1 Burrell Orchard 2014: Cleveland Archaeological Society Internship Amanda Ponomarenko The Ohio State University June - August 2014 Selected for the 2014 Cleveland Archaeological Society Internship in

More information

Growth and Changing Directions of Indian Textile Exports in the aftermath of the WTO

Growth and Changing Directions of Indian Textile Exports in the aftermath of the WTO Growth and Changing Directions of Indian Textile Exports in the aftermath of the WTO Abstract A.M.Sheela Associate Professor D.Raja Jebasingh Asst. Professor PG & Research Department of Commerce, St.Josephs'

More information

Tell Shiyukh Tahtani (North Syria)

Tell Shiyukh Tahtani (North Syria) Tell Shiyukh Tahtani (North Syria) Report of the 2010 excavation season conducted by the University of Palermo Euphrates Expedition by Gioacchino Falsone and Paola Sconzo In the summer 2010 the University

More information

Teachers Pack

Teachers Pack Whitehorse Hill: A Prehistoric Dartmoor Discovery 13.09.14-13.12.14 Teachers Pack CONTENTS About the Teachers Pack 05 Introduction to the exhibition 05 Prehistoric Britain - Timeline 05 What changed? Technology,

More information

SCOTLAND. Belfast IRISH SEA. Dublin THE REPUBLIC OF IRELAND ENGLAND ENGLISH CHANNEL. Before and After

SCOTLAND. Belfast IRISH SEA. Dublin THE REPUBLIC OF IRELAND ENGLAND ENGLISH CHANNEL. Before and After ALL ABOUT BRITAIN This book tells the story of the people who have lived in the British Isles, and is packed with fascinating facts and f un tales. The British Isles is a group of islands that consists

More information

Available through a partnership with

Available through a partnership with The African e-journals Project has digitized full text of articles of eleven social science and humanities journals. This item is from the digital archive maintained by Michigan State University Library.

More information

2 Saxon Way, Old Windsor, Berkshire

2 Saxon Way, Old Windsor, Berkshire 2 Saxon Way, Old Windsor, Berkshire An Archaeological Watching Brief For Mrs J. McGillicuddy by Pamela Jenkins Thames Valley Archaeological Services Ltd Site Code SWO 05/67 August 2005 Summary Site name:

More information

Tepe Gawra, Iraq expedition records

Tepe Gawra, Iraq expedition records Tepe Gawra, Iraq expedition records 1021 Last updated on March 02, 2017. University of Pennsylvania, Penn Museum Archives July 2009 Tepe Gawra, Iraq expedition records Table of Contents Summary Information...

More information

Focus Words diversity enhance migration presume reveal

Focus Words diversity enhance migration presume reveal Join the national conversation! WHO : S E I M M U M? D A E D E H T S N OW Word Generation - Unit 1.11 Focus Words diversity enhance migration presume reveal Weekly Passage Mummies are very old dead human

More information

Barnet Battlefield Survey

Barnet Battlefield Survey In terim report on the progress of the Barnet Battlefield Survey December 2016 The Barnet Battlefield Survey is an archaeological investigation into the 1471 Battle of Barnet. It aims to define more accurately

More information

A Ranking-Theoretic Account of Ceteris Paribus Conditions

A Ranking-Theoretic Account of Ceteris Paribus Conditions A Ranking-Theoretic Account of Ceteris Paribus Conditions Wolfgang Spohn Presentation at the Workshop Conditionals, Counterfactual and Causes In Uncertain Environments Düsseldorf, May 20 22, 2011 Contents

More information

ALASKA GROSS STATE PRODUCT

ALASKA GROSS STATE PRODUCT ALASKA GROSS STATE PRODUCT 1961-1998 by Scott Goldsmith Professor of Economics prepared for Alaska Department of Commerce and Economic Development June 1999 Institute of Social and Economic Research University

More information

Moray Archaeology For All Project

Moray Archaeology For All Project School children learning how to identify finds. (Above) A flint tool found at Clarkly Hill. Copyright: Leanne Demay Moray Archaeology For All Project ational Museums Scotland have been excavating in Moray

More information

16 members of the Fieldwalking Group met York Community Archaeologist Jon Kenny at Lou Howard s farm, Rose Cottage Farm, at

16 members of the Fieldwalking Group met York Community Archaeologist Jon Kenny at Lou Howard s farm, Rose Cottage Farm, at Terrington History Group Fieldwalking Group Field 1 Final report 21 October 2011 - fieldwalking 16 members of the Fieldwalking Group met York Community Archaeologist Jon Kenny at Lou Howard s farm, Rose

More information

Is this the Original Anglo-Saxon period site of Weathercote?

Is this the Original Anglo-Saxon period site of Weathercote? Is this the Original Anglo-Saxon period site of Weathercote? A Batty & N Crack 2016 Front Cover. Looking south east across proposed original site of Weathercote. Photograph A 2 3 Weathercote Anglo-Saxon

More information

Tips for proposers. Cécile Huet, PhD Deputy Head of Unit A1 Robotics & AI European Commission. Robotics Brokerage event 5 Dec Cécile Huet 1

Tips for proposers. Cécile Huet, PhD Deputy Head of Unit A1 Robotics & AI European Commission. Robotics Brokerage event 5 Dec Cécile Huet 1 Tips for proposers Cécile Huet, PhD Deputy Head of Unit A1 Robotics & AI European Commission Robotics Brokerage event 5 Dec. 2016 Cécile Huet 1 What are you looking for? MAXIMISE IMPACT OF PROGRAMME on

More information

An archaeological evaluation at 16 Seaview Road, Brightlingsea, Essex February 2004

An archaeological evaluation at 16 Seaview Road, Brightlingsea, Essex February 2004 An archaeological evaluation at 16 Seaview Road, Brightlingsea, Essex February 2004 report prepared by Kate Orr on behalf of Highfield Homes NGR: TM 086 174 (c) CAT project ref.: 04/2b ECC HAMP group site

More information

Market Analysis. Summary

Market Analysis. Summary Market Analysis Summary Jewelry manufacturing in the U.S. has seen sharp declines in recent years due to strong foreign competition. Many developing countries are in a good position to provide products

More information

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY. 1. Brief Description of item(s)

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY. 1. Brief Description of item(s) EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 1. Brief Description of item(s) What is it? A figurine of a man wearing a hooded cloak What is it made of? Copper alloy What are its measurements? 65 mm high, 48mm wide and 17 mm thick,

More information

Global Prehistory. 30, BCE The Origins of Images

Global Prehistory. 30, BCE The Origins of Images Global Prehistory 30,000-500 BCE The Origins of Images Key Points for Global Prehistory Periods and definitions Prehistory (or the prehistoric period) refers to the time before written records, however,

More information

Opium Cabin excavation Passport In Time July 21-25, 2014

Opium Cabin excavation Passport In Time July 21-25, 2014 Opium Cabin excavation Passport In Time July 21-25, 2014 Page 1 of 14 Non-American Indian settlement of the southern Blue Mountains began with the discovery of gold in drainages of the John Day River in

More information

Suburban life in Roman Durnovaria

Suburban life in Roman Durnovaria Suburban life in Roman Durnovaria Additional specialist report Finds Ceramic building material By Kayt Brown Ceramic building material (CBM) Kayt Brown A total of 16420 fragments (926743g) of Roman ceramic

More information

Bronze Age Handling Box Resource Book

Bronze Age Handling Box Resource Book Bronze Age Handling Box Resource Book Developed by the National Museum of Ireland in partnership with the Education Centre Network of Ireland, St Patrick s College and the Professional Development Service

More information

CHAPTER Introduction

CHAPTER Introduction CHAPTER 1 1. Introduction This section will talk about the background of this research, the problem statement and the aim and purpose of this research. Also, a few literature review, the scope and method

More information

2010 Watson Surface Collection

2010 Watson Surface Collection 2010 Watson Surface Collection Carol Cowherd Charles County Archaeological Society of Maryland, Inc. Chapter of Archeological Society of Maryland, Inc. November 2010 2011 Charles County Archaeological

More information

Small Finds Assessment, Minchery Paddock, Littlemore, Oxford (MP12)

Small Finds Assessment, Minchery Paddock, Littlemore, Oxford (MP12) Small s Assessment, Minchery Paddock, Littlemore, Oxford (MP12) Introduction A total of 51 objects recovered from excavations at Minchery Paddock, Littlemore, Oxford (MP12) were submitted for dating and

More information

Hembury Hillfort Lesson Resources. For Key Stage Two

Hembury Hillfort Lesson Resources. For Key Stage Two Hembury Hillfort Lesson Resources For Key Stage Two 1 Resource 1 Email 1 ARCHAEOLOGISTS NEEDED Dear Class, I recently moved to Payhembury and I have been having fun exploring the beautiful Blackdown Hills.

More information

AN INVESTIGATION OF LINTING AND FLUFFING OF OFFSET NEWSPRINT. ;, l' : a Progress Report MEMBERS OF GROUP PROJECT Report Three.

AN INVESTIGATION OF LINTING AND FLUFFING OF OFFSET NEWSPRINT. ;, l' : a Progress Report MEMBERS OF GROUP PROJECT Report Three. ;, l' : Institute of Paper Science and Technology. ' i,'',, AN INVESTIGATION OF LINTING AND FLUFFING OF OFFSET NEWSPRINT, Project 2979 : Report Three a Progress Report : r ''. ' ' " to MEMBERS OF GROUP

More information

Former Whitbread Training Centre Site, Abbey Street, Faversham, Kent Interim Archaeological Report Phase 1 November 2009

Former Whitbread Training Centre Site, Abbey Street, Faversham, Kent Interim Archaeological Report Phase 1 November 2009 Former Whitbread Training Centre Site, Abbey Street, Faversham, Kent Interim Archaeological Report Phase 1 November 2009 SWAT. Archaeology Swale and Thames Archaeological Survey Company School Farm Oast,

More information

An Patterned History of Ta Moko Stephanie Ip Karl Fousek Art History 100 Section 06

An Patterned History of Ta Moko Stephanie Ip Karl Fousek Art History 100 Section 06 An Patterned History of Ta Moko Stephanie Ip 23406051 Karl Fousek Art History 100 Section 06 As we have seen thus far in our course on Art History, there is almost always a deeper meaning behind a culture

More information