Chapter 2-Art of Ancient Near East

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1 Jan 14, 17-Art of the Ancient Near East & Ancient Egypt: Reading Notes Chapter 2-Art of Ancient Near East Stele of Naram-Sin (found at present day Iran) ruled BCE tab Stele: upright stone -Mesopotamia artists developed this stele celebrating and communicating the political stratification that gave order and security to their world -Akkadian ruler Naram-Sin s power presence is signaled by size as he is the largest person pictured -art work conforms to an artistic practice known as hierarchic scale where relative size indicates relative importance -The ruler is also elevated above other figures, sense of grandeur; clasps weaponry such as a spear, battle axe, bow and arrow, grand helmet on his head has horns which are normally reserved for gods claiming divinity -The eroticized pose and presentation of Naram-Sin with a well-formed male body is displayed. In ancient Mesopotamian culture male potency and vigor were related to heroism and powerful kingship -representation of the ruler points to his sacredness and authority as a leader of the state -tells a story of one of his important military victories. He stands above smaller figures and on the left, his army who are dressed in a similar fashion seen marching along up the hillside into battle. Native trees are included to heighten the sense that this portrays an actual event. The enemy (Lullubi people from eastern Mesopotamia) are on the right. One of the enemies are depicted with a spear to his neck and others are begging for mercy. The Fertile Crescent and Mesopotamia SUMER: The cities and city states that developed along the rivers of south Mesopotamia b/w 3500 and 2340 BCE is known as Sumer. The Sumerians are credited with important technological and cultural advances. WRITING: Sumerians pressed cuneiform (wedged shaped) symbols into clay tablets with a stylus to keep business records THE ZIGGURAT: Sumerians most impressive archaeological remains are ziggurats (huge stepped structures with a temple or shrine on top). Ziggurats towering above the flat plains proclaimed wealth, prestige, and stability of a city s rulers and glorified its gods. It functioned symbolically as lofty bridges between the earth and the heavens (meeting place for humans and gods)

2 URUK: Two large temples complexes in the city of Uruk mark the first independent Sumerian city state. The temple had a doorway that led to a large chamber containing an altar. -Statues of gods and donors were placed in these temples. A life size marble face from Uruk may represent a temple goddess. It could have been attached to a wooden head on a full size wooden body. -A tall vessel of carved alabaster (fine, white stone) BCE found in the temple complex of Inanna at Uruk shows how early Mesopotamian sculptors told stories in stone with great clarity and talent. The visual narrative is organized into three registers or horizontal bands and the story condensed to its essential elements. The lowest register shows in a lower strip the sources of life in the natural world, beginning with water and plants, the upper strip shows rams and ewes marching in a single file while the middle register shows naked men carry baskets of food, the top register shows the goddess Inanna accepting offerings from two figures where she is in front of a gate leading to a shrine. VOTIVE FIGURES: limestone statues dated to about BCE from the square temple in Eshnunna. The figures of men and women, images dedicated to the gods, are related to the ancient Near Eastern devotional practice in which individual worshippers can set up images of themselves in a shrine. The sculptors followed conventions that were important in Sumerian art where figures have stylized faces and bodies, dressed in clothing that emphasized cylindrical shapes, standing solemnly, hands clasped, staring eyes may be related to texts tat advised worshippers to approach their gods with an attentive gaze. The faces of the women had arched eyebrows and big eyes while the men are bare-chested and dressed in sheepskin skirts and are stocky and muscular with heavy legs, large feet, big shoulders. Females are as massive as the men. -Sumerian artists worked in various precious metals and many were in the shape of animals or animal, human, bird creatures. For example, lyre, a harp from the city of Ur consists of wood, gold, lapis lazuli and shell. The base projects a wood-sculpture of a blue bearded bull covered in gold. CYLINDER SEALS: About the time written records appeared, Sumerians developed seals for identifying documents and establishing property ownership. By BCE record keepers redesigned the seal as a cylinder which left a raised mirror image of the design into the surface proved the authenticity or accuracy of a text. It is usually less than 2 inches high and made of hard stone. People acquired seals as a sign of status and were usually buried with them along with other possessions. -the lapis lazuli seal is one of over 400 that were found during excavation of the royal burials at Ur. It comes from the tomb of a powerful royal woman known as Puabi. The design shows two registers of a banquet which all guests may be women. AKKAD: Akkadians inhibited an area north of Uruk. They adopted Sumerian culture but unlike Sumerians, they spoke a Semitic language. They conquered most of Mesopotamia with their powerful military and political figure, Sargon.

3 DISK OF ENHEDUANNA: partially preserved circular relief sculpture in alabaster excavated at Ur by British Archaeologist Leonard Woolley. Most extraordinary surviving works of ancient Near Eastern art. Enheduanna is pictured with her companions wearing a fleeced wool garment and a headgear of a high priestess who was the daughter of Sargon I. The front of the disk commemorates the dedication of Enheduanna s donation of a dais (to the platform) to the temple. The naked man in front of her pours a ritual libation and she and her two other followers have their right hands on their faces. HEAD OF A RULER: Is a life size bronze head found in the northern city of Nineveh (Ninua, Iraq) and the earliest known work of hollow cast sculpture using the lost-wax casting process. -enormous curling beard, braided hair indicate both royalty and ideal male appearance -deliberate damage to the left side of the face and eyes suggest it was symbolically mutilated to destroy its power (eyes and ears have been removed) THE STELE OF NARAM-SIN -memorializes one of Naram-Sin s military victories and is one of the first works of art created to celebrate a specific achievement of an individual ruler. After a thousand years after the end of Akkadian rule, during the twelfth century, Elamite king conquered Sipar and transported the stele to Susa where he rededicated it to an Elamite god, adding a new explanatory inscription which recounted his own victory and claiming the monument. The stele remained in Susa until the end of the nineteenth century and then excavated by a French archaeologist, it is in Paris at the Louvre. UR AND LAGASH -King Urnammu of Ur sponsored magnificent building campaigns such as a ziggurat dedicated to the moon god Nanna called Sin. Mud-bricked, rectangular base with three sets of stairs converging and the walls sloping outward. -Lagash, a Sumerian state city on the Tigris river. The ruler Gudea built and restored many temples, he placed votive statues representing himself as governor and embodiment of just rule. The statues are made of hard stone diorite. Images of Gudea present him as a strong, peaceful, pious ruler, always wearing a long garment, right shoulder bare, wearing a cap, holding a vessel. The text on his garment states that he dedicated himself, the statue and its temple to the goddess Geshtinanna, the divine poet and interpreter of dreams. The sculptor has emphasized the power centers of the human body: the eyes, head and smoothly muscled arms. His face is youthful and his eyes are oversized and wide open. THE HITTITES OF ANATOLIA Anatolia (present day Turkey) had several independent cultures that had resisted Mesopotamian domination. The Hitties of central Anatolia were the most powerful. They established their capital in 1600 BCE and it came to an end in 1200 BCE. They created an empire that stretched along the Mediterranean Sea which resulted in conflicts between the

4 Egyptian empire. May have been the first to work in iron which they used for war chariot fittings, weapons, chisels and hammers. They are noted for the artistry of their fine metal work and imposing palace citadels with fortified gates and double walls. One of the most monumental of these sites consists of the foundation and base walls of Hittite stronghold at Hattusha ( BCE). Stone were used for lower walls and walkways, upper walls and stairways were brick. Blocks of stone to frame doorways were decorated with guardian figures some 7 feet tall and were half-human, half-animal creatures and animals. ASSYRIA -Assyrians rose to dominance in northern Mesopotamia in about 1400 BCE -began conquering neighboring regions about 1000 BCE and controlled most of Mesopotamia by end of ninth century BCE as well as extended influence as far as Egypt by early seventh century BCE. -empire collapsed by 600 BCE -rulers built huge palaces atop high platforms, were decorated with shallow stone reliefs of battle and hunting scenes, of victories, presentations of tribute to the king and religious imagery. KALHU -Assurnasirpal II established his capital at Kalhu during his reign between BCE and undertook an ambitious building program -the city was fortified with mud brick walls, canals that irrigated fields and provided water; limestone and alabaster were also used to on walls for architectural decoration. Colossal guardian figures flanked the major portals (grand entrances) and panels covered the wall with scenes in low relief of the king participating in rituals, war campaigns and hunting expeditions. THE LION HUNT -vivid lion hunting scene where Assurnasirpal II stands in a chariot and drawing his bow at a lion as another lion collapses; probably a ceremonial hunt ENEMIES CROSSING THE EUPHRATES TO ESCAPE ASSYRIAN ARCHERS -palace relief of a scene of a battle set within a detailed landscape -Three Assyrian enemies, two of which they are using floating devices, swim across a river as Assyrian archers are trying to attack. Scene is an event from 878 BCE. DUR SHARRUKIN -Sargon II built a new Assyrian capital at Dur Sharrukin. Northwest side of capital is a walled citadel (fortress). Sargon lived in his palace complex within the citadel which was a raised platform about 40 feet high.

5 -Lamassus, guardian figures on stone gates, combined a bearded head of a man, the body of a lion or bull, the wings of an eagle and a horn headdress of a god. -Ziggurat within the complex to declare the might of Assyrian kings and symbolizing their claim to empire. Probably had seven levels and each painted a different colour. NINEVEH -Assurbanipal, the Assyrian king three generations after Sargon II, maintained his capital at Nineveh. -palace was decorated with alabaster panels carved with pictorial narratives in low relief (in battle, hunting or scenes of palace life) -Assurbanipal and his queen in the garden shows the king reclining on a couch and the queen sitting on a chair at his feet while musician plays music, three servants with trays of food while others wave whisks to chase off insects. The scene is a victory celebration; the severed head of the enemy can be seen hanging on a tree. NEO-BABYLONIA -at the end of the 7 th century, Assyria was invaded by the Medes (from western Iran) -the Neo-Babylonians controlled the regions of modern turkey to northern Arabia and Mesopotamia to Mediterranean Sea. -most famous Neo-Babylonian ruler was Nebuchadnezzar II who was a great patron of architecture -he built temples that were dedicated to the gods and transformed Babylon into a great city. -Babylon straddled the Euphrates River, its 2 sections joined by a bridge -the route taken by religious processions honoring the city s patron god, Marduk, was paved with stone slabs set in a bed of bitumen, it ran from the bridge through the temple district and palaces and though the gate of Ishtar. -The Ishtar gate was a ceremonial entrance to the city, its four crenellated (walls for military defense) towers symbolized Babylon power -beyond the gate were walls of dark blue glazed bricks consisting of a film of colored glass on the bricks. -against the blue background was molded colored bricks forming images of lions, mascots of the goddess Ishtar and dragons. PERSIA -In 6 th century BCE, the Persians began to seize power of Mesopotamia establishing a vast empire

6 -Darius I, a Persian ruler, created palaces and citadels and made Susa his first capital -He began construction of Parsa (one of the most well preserved and most impressive ancient sites near east and also known as Persepolis) importing workers, materials, and artists from all over his empire. He even ordered work done to be in Egypt and sent back to his capital. A new multicultural style of art had emerged that combined many traditions. -reliefs of animal combat on the stairs, ranks of royal guards, delegation of tribute bearers are depicted. Animal combat emphasize the ferocity of the leaders and their men. Elegant drawing, balanced composition and sleek modeling reflect Persians knowledge of Greek art and maybe use of Greek artists. Other reliefs depict displays of allegiance or economic prosperity. -Alexander the Great of Macedonia defeated Darius and nearly destroyed Persepolis in 330 BCE -Although the empire was at an end, Persia revived and its style of art continued to influence Greek artists and became a foundation in Islamic art. Chapter 3-Artof Ancient Egypt Early Dynastic Egypt c BCE -around 3000 BCE, Egypt became a consolidated state as a powerful ruler from Upper Egypt conquered Lower Egypt and unified the two kingdoms -Works of art in this period show the development of fundamental ideas about kingship and cosmic order THE GOD-KINGS -Egypt s kings were revered as gods in human form. To please the gods and ensure their good will to the state, kings built temples and provided priests to maintain them. Gods and goddesses were depicted in various forms, some as human beings, others as animals and others as humans with animal heads. ARTISTIC CONVENTIONS -Egyptian artists followed a set of strict conventions often based on conceptual principles rather than the observation of the natural world (lifelike). Mathematical formulas were developed to determine designs and proportions. THE NARMER PALETTE -Found in the temple of Horus at Hierakonopolis -commonly interpreted as representing the unification of Egypt and the beginning of the country s growth as a powerful nation state

7 -hierarchic scale signals the importance of Narmer as he is shown larger than the other figures. He wears the white crown of Upper Egypt while striking the enemy before him with a mace. The god Horus depicted as a falcon holds a rope tied around the neck of the enemy whose head is attacked to a block sprouting papyrus which symbolizes Lower Egypt. -message is clear: Narmer, a ruler of Upper Egypt is in control of Lower Egypt -many of the figures are shown in composite poses. This convention for representing the human figure as a conceptualized composite of multiple viewpoints depicts mostly royalty. Persons of lesser rank tend to be represented in ways that seem more lifelike. FUNERARY ARCHITECTURE -Ancient Egyptians believed Ka (soul) was essential as it lived on after the death of the body. The Ka needed a body to live in either a mummified body of the deceased or a substitute such as a statue. -Egyptians developed elaborate funerary practices to ensure that their deceased moved safely into the afterlife. It was especially important to provide a comfortable home of the Ka of the departed king so even in the afterlife, he would continue to ensure the well-being of Egypt. -Egyptians preserved the bodies of the royal with care and placed them in burial chambers filled with sculpted body substitutes and all the supplies and furnishings the Ka might need. MASTABA AND NECROPOLIS -the most common tomb structure (used by upper class and royalty) was the mastaba, a flat topped one story building with slanted walls erected above an underground burial chamber. It was first constructed by mud brick but then was incorporated with cut stone. -contained a serdab, a small sealed room housing the ka statue and a chapel designed to receive mourning relatives and offerings. -might have had numerous underground burial chambers to accommodate whole families -tended to be grouped together in a necropolis at the edge of a desert on the west bank of the Nile, for the land of the dead was believed to be in the direction of the setting sun. -two of the most extensive of these necropolises are at Saqqara and Giza DJOSER S COMPLEX AT SAQQARA -the third dynasty king Djoser commissioned the earliest known monumental architecture in Egypt for his tomb complex -the designer of the complex was Imhotep, the Prime Minister. He is the first architect in history to be identified. The step pyramid dominated the complex and although it resembles the ziggurats, it differs both in meaning (signifying a stairway to the sun god) and purpose (protecting the tomb).

8 THE OLD KINGDOM c BCE -time of social and political stability; the growing wealth of rulers is reflected in the enormous and elaborate tomb complexes, upper level government officials also could afford these tombs. THE GREAT PYRAMIDS OF GIZA -the three pyramids were built by three successive Fourth-dynasty kings: Khufu, Khafre and Menkaure. -the oldest and largest is that of Khufu which covers 13 acres at its base. The pyramid of Khafre is smaller than Khufu s and Menkaure s is considerably smaller. -the site was planned to follow the sun s east-west path. Next to each of the pyramids were a funerary temple connected by a causeway (enclosed pathway) to a valley temple on the bank of the Nile. When a king died, the body would be moved to the valley temple where it was received by elaborate ceremonies. It was then carried to his funerary temple through the causeway and placed in its chapel where family members presented offerings and the priest would perform rites. Finally, the body was entombed in a vault deep within the pyramids and sealed off with a stone block. To protect it from intruders, three false passage ways obscured the tomb. CONSTRUCTING THE PYRAMIDS -huge labour force was needed. Most of the cut stone blocks used in building the pyramids were quarried either on the site or nearby. A team of workers transported them by muscle power, employing small logs as rollers or pouring water on mud to create a slippery surface so they could drag the blocks. -might have temporary built a sloping ramp around the body to raise the pyramid -designers were capable of sophisticated mathematical calculations KHAFRE S COMPLEX -best preserved complex; only one to have maintained some of its veneer facing at the top -most famous for the great sphinx that sits behind Khafre s valley temple; colossal portrait of the king combines his head with the body of a crouching lion, merging human intelligence with animal strength. -the valley temple is made up of red granite and piers supporting the flat roof. A clerestory (row of tall narrow windows) lets in light that reflects off the alabaster floor. -Within the temple were over life size statues of Khafre as an enthroned king. The falcon god perches on the back of the throne protecting the king and the lion on the throne s legs symbolizes regal authority and the intertwined lotus and papyrus symbolizes the king s power over Upper and Lower Egypt. He wears a traditional royal costume, kilt, headdress, false beard symbolic of royalty. He holds a cylinder on his right hand. Made from the stone gneiss, it produces a rare optical effect and glows a deep blue when illuminated by the sunlight. SCULPTURE

9 MENKAURE AND A QUEEN -double statue discovered in Menkaure s valley temple, joined by stone forming a single unit and the queen s gesture of embrace as her left hand rests gently over his upper arm. -the king is depicted in accordance with Egyptian ideals as athletic, youthful and nde to the waist wearing a royal kilt and head cloth, standing in a conventional pose with his left foot forward, his arms straight at his sides and his fists clenched. His queen takes a smaller step. Her close fitting garment reveals the curves of her body. SEATED SCRIBE -Made in the fifth dynasty. Sculptors produced status of less prominent people, rendered in a more relaxed, life like fashion. The seated scribe has a round head, alert expression, cap of close cropped hair and was discovered near the tomb of a government official, Kai, it could be portrait himself. -his saggy and flabby body indicates his life free from hard physical labour. He sits with a papyrus scroll on his lap and his right hand clasping a brush. His eyes give the illusion of being in motion. STATUETTES OF SERVANTS -more lifelike than the scribe, were smaller figures of servants at work. They were made for inclusion in Old Kingdom tombs so the deceased could be provided for in the next world. A painted limestone statuette from the fifth dynasty captures a butcher with a knife in his hand over the throat of an ox. The emphasis on involved poses and engagement might have been an attempt to underscore their the ability of such figures to perform their assigned tasks or to indicate their lower social status by showing them involved in physical labour. PICTORIAL RELIEFS IN TOMBS -to provide the ka with the most pleasant living quarters for eternity, wealthy families had the interior walls and ceilings of their tombs decorated with paintings and reliefs. They carried religious meaning and also portray the deceased s everyday life as well as ceremonial events that proclaimed their importance. THE TOMB OF TI -on the walls of the large mastaba of a wealthy government official named Ti, a painted relief shows him watching a hippo hunt, an official duty of royal courtiers. Hippos represented the god of chaos, Seth and they were destructive Tomb depictions of hippos therefore proclaimed the valor of the deceased and the triumph of good over evil. -It is a painted limestone relief; the artists used a number of established Egyptian conventions. THE MIDDLE KINGDOM c.1975-c.1460 BCE -After the collapse of the Old Kingdom, it was followed by 150 years of political turmoil, fragmentation and warfare, referred to as the First Intermediate Period. About 2010 BCE, a

10 series of kings named Mentuhotep gained power in Thebes and the country was reunited under Nebhepetre Mentruhotep who reasserted power an founded the middle kingdom. -another high point in Egyptian history; arts and writing flourished PORTRAITS OF SENUSRET III -some royal portraits appear to express an unexpected awareness of the hardship and fragility of human existence, especially the statues of king Senusret III -old kingdom rulers appear to be confident and unflinching whereas the portrait of Senusret III seems to capture a monarch preoccupied an emotionally drained. -he was a dynamic king and successful general who led military expeditions into Nubia, overhauled the Egyptian administration and regained control of the country s nobles. ROCK CUT TOMBS -during the 11 th and 12 th dynasties, members of nobility and high level officials commissioned tombs hollowed out of the face of a cliff -it included an entrane portico (projecting porch), a main hall and a shrine with burial chamber. All were carved into the solid rock. BENI HASAN: necropolis created in the cliffs. Painted scenes cover the interior walls of many tombs. Best preserved are those in the tomb of local noble Khnumhotep. FUNERARY STELAI -prosperous people could commission funerary stelai depicting themselves, their family, and offerings of food. -these personal monuments, meant to preserve the memory of the deceased and inspire the living to make offerings to them. -the Stele of the Sculptor Userwer shows an unfinished state at the lowest register which maintains the preparatory ink drawing meant to guide the sculptor, proving that he used the system of canonical figure proportions (established in the middle kingdom). -Egyptian convention used to differentiate gender by skin tone: dark red brown skin for men and lighter yellow for women. TOWN PLANNING -Egyptians built their houses with mud bricks even though they used durable materials for their tombs.

11 THE NEW KINGDOM c BCE -During the second intermediate period, an eastern Mediterranean people called Hyksos invaded Egypt s north most regions but the kings of the eighteenth dynasty regained control of the entire region, restoring political and economic strength. -Thutmose III extended Egypt s influence along the eastern Mediterranean coast as far as the region of present day Syria. He was the first ruler to call himself pharaoh (meaning the great house). THE GREAT TEMPLE COMPLEXES -rulers undertook extensive building programs along the entire length of the Nile. Thebes was Egypt s religious center and the worship of the Theban triad of deities; Amun, his wife Mut and son Khons spread throughout the country. Temples to these and other gods were a major focus of royal patronage and temples glorified the kings themselves. THE NEW KINGDOM TEMPLE PLAN -an Egyptian temple originally took the form of a house, a simple rectangular flat roofed building with a courtyard and gateway. The builders of the new kingdom enlarged and multiplied these elements. -the gateway became a massive pylon with tapering walls -the semipublic courtyard was surrounded by columns (a peristyle court) -the temple itself included an outer hypostyle hall (a vast hall filled with columns), an inner offering hall and sanctuary -the design was symmetrical and axial -rooms became smaller, darker and more exclusive as they neared the sanctuary where the cult image of the god was housed. Only the priests and pharaohs entered the inner rooms. KARNAK -a long standing sacred site where temples were built and rebuilt for over 1500 years -during the 500 years of the New Kingdom, successive kings renovated and expanded the complex of the great temple of Amun -Between the reigns of Thutmose I (eighteenth dynasty) and Ramses II (nineteenth dynasty), the area near the sanctuary, halls and courts (the heart of the temple) went under a great deal of construction and renewal. -newly built and embellished with colourful pictorial wall reliefs. A sacred lake was also added for purification.

12 THE GREAT HALL AT KARNAK -enormous hypostyle hall set between two pylons at the end of the main forecourt. -It was erected in the reigns of the nineteenth dynasty rulers Sety I and his son Ramses II -it may have been used for royal coronation ceremonies -consisted of columns that supported the flat stone roof, papyrus capitals, and clerestory. Artists painted pictorial reliefs and inscriptions. HATSHEPSUT -valleys on the west bank of the Nile held the royal necropolis including the tomb of the pharaoh Hatshepsut. -daughter of Thetmose I, Hatshepsut, declared herself king by the priests of Amun. -she was represented as a male king wearing a kilt, a linen headdress and occasionally a false beard. -was adapted to conform to convention -her funerary temple located at Deir el-bahiri, about a mile away from her actual tomb in the Valley of Kings -was designed for funeral rites and commemorative ceremonies and is much larger and prominent than the tomb itself; the opposite of the Old Kingdom pyramids complexes. THE TOMB OF RAMOSE -the traditional art of pictorial relief reached a high degree of aesthetic refinement and technical sophistication during the reign of Amenhotep III -Ramose was the mayor of Thebes and vizier to the reigning pharaohs. He was second only to the pharaoh in power and prestige. -He constructed an elaborate Theban tomb comprised of four rooms, including a hypostyle hall. Walls were covered with painting or shallow pictorial relief carvings celebrating the accomplishments, affiliations and lineage of Ramose and his wife and also the visualization of funeral rites that would have taken place. -the tomb was not used by Ramose, it was abandoned in various stages of completion -the reliefs were never painted, some walls had preliminary sketches. However, the works are among the most sophisticated relief carvings

13 AKHENATEN AND THE ART OF THE AMARNA PERIOD -Amenhotep IV radically transformed the political, spiritual and cultural life of the country. -he founded a new religion honoring a single god, the life giving sun deity Aten. -changed his own name to Akhenaten and abandoned the capital Thebes and built a new capital calling it Akhetaten. -Akhenaten s reign is referred to as the Amarna period THE NEW AMARNA STYLE -there were radical changes in royal artistic conventions -in portraits of the king, artists subjected his representation to startling stylizations, even physical distortions. THE PORTRAIT OF TIY -Queen Tiy was Akhenaten s mother. She had played a significant role in affairs of state during his reign. -The portrait head reveals the bone structure of her dark skinned face, arched brows, up tilted eyes and full lips -Originally, the portrait included a funerary silver headdress but was altered by her son. A brown cap with blue glass beads was placed over the original headdress. THE HEADDRESS OF NEFERTITI -the head was discovered in 1912 along with drawings and other items related to the royal family in the Akhetaten studio of the sculptor Thumose. -It may have served as a model for full length sculptures or paintings of the queen -facial features are consistent with the standard of beauty within our own cultures -its use of colour may be part of the appeal apart from its stunning beauty GLASS -glassmaking could only have been practiced by artists working for the king -Akhenaten s new capital had its own glassmaking workshops THE RETURN TO TRADITION: TUTANKHAMUN AND RAMSES II -Akhenaten s new religion and art only lived on for a few years -His son Tutankhaten returned to traditional beliefs, changed his name to Tutankhamun and moved the court back to Thebes

14 TUTANKHAMUN S TOMB -his mummified body crowned with a spectacular mask preserving his royal likeness lay inside three nested coffins that identified him with Osiris, the god of the dead. -the innermost coffin in the shape of a mummy, is the richest of the three, made over 240 pounds of gold and its surface decorated with colored glass and semiprecious gemstones as well as firmly incised linear designs and hieroglyphic inscriptions -the king holds a crook and a flail, symbols associated with Osiris. A nemes head cloth with projecting cobra and vulture covers his head and a blue braided beard is attached to his chin. Vulture and cobra goddesses of Upper and Lower Egypt spread their wings across his body. The king s features reproduced on the coffin and masks are those of a young man, with full lips, thin bridged nose and pierced earlobes suggesting the vitality of Amarna stylizations. RAMSES AND ABU SIMBEL -Ramses II was a powerful and long lived king; under his reign, Egypt was a mighty empire -he was a bold leader and effective political strategist -was an effective master of royal propaganda, able to turn military defeats into glorious victories -he initiated building projects on a scale rivaling the Old Kingdom pyramids at Giza. -At Abu Simbel, Ramses ordered two large temples to be carved out of natural rock one for himself and one for his wife. THE BOOKS OF THE DEAD -Egyptians had come to a belief that only a person free from wrongdoing could enjoy an afterlife -The dead were thought to undergo a last judgment consisting of two tests presided over by Osiris and Anubis. After the deceased were questioned about their behaviour in life, their hearts were weighted on a scale against an ostrich feather symbolizing the goddess of truth, order and justice. Family members commissioned papyrus scrolls containing magical texts or spells which the embalmers placed among the wrappings of the mummified bodies. These scrolls are referred to as Books of the Dead. THE THIRD INTERMEDIATE PERIOD c BCE -after the end of the new kingdom, Egypt was ruled by a series of new dynasties, whose leaders continued traditional patterns of patronage and pushed figural conventions in new directions -ancient Egyptian bronze sculpture; inscription on the base identifies it as Karomama, divine consort of Amun and member of a community of virgin priestesses selected from the pharaoh s family or retinue who were dedicated to him -was the granddaughter of King Osorkan I (21 st dynasty) -these priestesses had immense power, held property and maintained their own court

15 -The sistra (ritual rattles) that Karomama once carried in her hands would have immediately identified her as a priestess -the main body was cast in bronze and covered in a thin sheating of bronze, which was then engraved with patterns inlaid with gold, silver, and electrum -slender limbs, ample hips, prominent breasts constract with other female figures of the late new kingdom LATE EGYPTIAN ART c BCE -the late period saw the country and its art in the hands and service of foreigners -Nubians, Persians, Macedonians, Greeks and Romans were all attracted to Egypt s riches and seduced by its art -many adopted Egyptian religious practices, artistic conventions and architectural forms -the Romans succeeded as Egypt s rulers

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