Ornaments from Early Iron Age Megalithic Culture of Vidarbha

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1 Ornaments from Early Iron Age Megalithic Culture of Vidarbha Sikhasree Ray 1 and R.K. Mohanty 1 1. Department of A.I.H.C. and Archaeology, Deccan College Post Graduate Research Institute, Pune , Maharashtra, India ( sikhasreeray.in@gmail.com, rabikm@rediffmail.com) Received: 16 August 2016; Accepted: 07 September 2016; Revised: 13 October 2016 Heritage: Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies in Archaeology 4 (2016): Abstract: Ornaments and ornamentation forms an important aspect of human cultural attributes. However, these aspects have not been thoroughly investigated to project its importance within the material remains during the early Iron Age megalithic period especially from excavation remains from Vidarbha. The association of the ornaments with the deceased needs to be properly understood to highlight the social persona within the community as well as the technological advancement projected during the period. Ornaments were not only restricted to the human beings. The horse ornaments and other ornaments made out of copper, gold and semiprecious stone ornaments found from these burials has been analyzed to bring out the importance of the ornaments during this period and also in relation to the other artifacts found. Keywords: Ornaments, Iron Age, Site, Megalithic, Vidarbha, Excavation, Burial Good Introduction Ornaments and ornamentation forms an important aspect of human cultural attributes which not only tells the use of ornaments, preference but to some extent the personal ideology and aesthetic sense of the period and the user. The use of ornament in various forms may have taken place from very early period is shrouded in obscurity. They are found from Upper Paleolithic onwards in various raw materials, shapes and sizes, various designs and motifs and used to decorate various parts of the body in India (Bedranik 1993: 33-40, Sonawane 1996:84-88). The evidence of ornaments is found from the Paleolithic period predominately are beads made of ostrich shells, a few in shells and bones. Later during the Harappan, regional Chalcolithic and later subsequent periods produced huge amount of ornaments of different shape and material, like gold, copper, terracotta, semiprecious stone, shell, bones, ivory, seeds etc. The ornaments were designed to suit the personality, economic status, affordability of the individuals in a particular given society in a cultural melee. However, the ornaments which come from the archaeological sites especially from the settlements are often have come to the archaeological context as a refuge, accidental loss or hoarded or

2 ISSN Heritage: Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies in Archaeology 4: 2016 stored for distribution or from manufacturing centers. The archaeological findings from the excavation give the authentic evidence of ornaments that helps us having a clear idea about various aspects of the prevailing ornaments of a particular period. The introduction of Iron around second half of the 2 nd millennium B.C. brought a considerable change in socio cultural economic life of the people. Besides economic changes which were manifested in various ways, an institution of ceremonial elaborate ritual burial practices formed an integral part of some of the contemporary Iron Age society. These burial practices are known as Megalithic tradition or Megalithism is well evident in many regions of Uttarapath, generally south of Vindhyas. They are also knows as south Indian Megalithic traditions. They are also found in other part of country in different magnitude. These ritual burials not only incorporated the dead either in primary or secondary form but also in symbolic memorials forms. In these burials depending upon the regional behaviors, economic condition, intensity of the feeling in the form of relationship with the family, community and within the settlement and outside settlement of neighborhood in a major way influenced the incorporation of artifacts belonging to various categories. Unlike the habitations where we normally get artifacts which most of the time has come as a refuge, stored or as hoard, here the burials intentionally have given evidence of assembly of artifacts of which personal ornaments forms an important part. So these ornaments are found in different state of preservation in different parts of burials belonging to different shapes, sizes and raw materials occurring at different locations of the burial. They show not only belonging to the deceased, but also forming a part of family position, wealth and appreciation. Hence, it speaks about contemporary practice of decorating the body and also their procurement, craftsmanship, technology available, economic condition of the deceased or their relatives. However, these particular aspects have not been thoroughly investigated to project its importance within the material remains during the early Iron Age megalithic period especially from excavation remains from Vidarbha. The association of the ornaments with the deceased needs to be properly understood to highlight the social persona within the community as well as the technological advancement projected during the period. So in this paper the study will take into account the personal ornaments made out of copper, gold and semiprecious stone especially found from some of the important excavated burials of Vidarbha region, where data is available. Here the ornaments were not only restricted to the human being but also the animals such as horses, cattle and may be other domesticated animals. This study also takes in account the other associated artifacts from the burials and the sites. Doing so an attempt will be made to understand the various aspects related to ornaments as mentioned above and to know the importance of the ornaments during this period through the analysis of other associated artifacts found. The region Vidarbha is located at the eastern part of Maharashtra comprising 11 districts such as Buldhana, Akola, Amaravati, Yeotmal, Bhandara, Gadchiroli, Gondia, 612

3 Ray and Mohanty 2016: Washim, Nagpur, Wardha and Chandrapur. The region is famous for the Megalithic culture as it has yielded a number of megalithic burials sites. There are about 120 megalithic sites in Vidarbha and majority of the sites are located and discovered in Nagpur district. Most of the important sites are situated within 50 km radius from Nagpur city. All the sites selected for the present study in Vidarbha region (Fig. 1) also belong to this complex. Though a large number of sites have been excavated in Vidarbha region but in this paper those sites have been taken into consideration which yielded the evidence of the various ornaments and report is available. These sites yielded a number of ornaments both for human beings as well as animals in association with the burials as well as other associated artifacts which helps to have a panoramic picture of the social status of the Megalithic people of the each individual site in particular and of Vidarbha region in general. Figure 1: Selected Sites for the Study (Courtesy: Gopal Joge and Shantanu Vaidya) Name of Important sites Selected for Study 1. Mahurjhari (S.B. Deo ) 2. Raipur (G.B. Deglurkar & Gauri P. Lad ) 3. Naikund (S.B. Deo and A.P. Jamkhedkar ) 4. Takalghat Khapa (S.B. Deo ) 5. Junapani (IAR ) 6. Bhagimohari (IAR ) 7. Borgaon (IAR ) 8. Khairwada (IAR ) 613

4 ISSN Heritage: Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies in Archaeology 4: 2016 (5 sites i.e. Mahurjhari, Naikund, Takalghat Khapa, Bhagimohari, Khairwada are habitation cum- Burial site and from rest of the sites only burials have been recorded.) Brief Review of the Excavations Some of the these sites were excavated by Archaeological survey of India, Nagpur University, Deccan college, State department of Archaeology and Museums, Government of Maharashtra. Looking at the literature available it has been observed that the burials chosen from all these sites for excavations were not sampled but arbitrarily chosen looking to their size, deposit, locality with an underlying impression of getting better results. Hence, the cultural materials so retreat may not represent the common behaviors. Within the burial all the cultural material most of the time did not accompany the actual deceased or the buried. Some certainly accompanied the date but others were found placed at the different parts of the burials at different levels. So the analysis of the ornaments here will be according to the total assemblages of the artifacts found from the burials, not according to the place, position of the findings in the burials itself. Hence, in some cases it may not represent actual relationship with the deceased (Mohanty, R.K &:P.S. Joshi, 1996: ). The Burial Goods from Various Categories There have been several attempts to understand the mortuary practice as well as associated burial goods to understand the personality of the deceased in relation to the culture of the period. Several scholars have attempted in understanding aspects in deciphering the complexity of the practice. Among them reference can be made to Shennan (1975), Chapman (1977), Hodson (1977), Van De Velde (1979), Kendal (1971), Doran (1972), Tainter (1975). However Louis Robert Binford in his article 1962 and subsequently in 1971 (Binford, L.R. 1971: ) provides an model to classify the burial goods into three categories Technomic artifact, Socio technic artifact and Ideo tecnic artifact. They are craftsman tools, Agriculture tools, household object, offensive or defensive weapons, ornaments, ideological object, art objects and animal remains. All the tools also have been classified according to their functions in, cultural context. Some of the tools are utility tools which are termed as technomic artifacts. They directly are used to cope with the physical environment. The group of artifacts which are associated with functions signifying starters, place, position and achievement of an individual or a group. They have been designated as socio technomic artifacts. The other group of artifacts which do not come directly under function to carry out any objective but an Ideological Component of Social system. These artifacts belong to category of objects which are symbolic in nature or have functions which signify beauty, aesthetic sense, attainment of a society, symbolic power, position, authority, art, faiths and beliefs, object of reverence. They can be identified as ideo-technomic artifact. To some extent the studies in general has carried out in this aspect in Vidarbha as well as in South India (Moorty-1994, Mohanty & Selvakumar- 2002: , Thakuria, Mohanty and Joglekar in press, Shettigar ). Here the analysis will be 614

5 Ray and Mohanty 2016: done according to the objects found from the burials such as necklace, pendant, beads, bangles, earring, and horse objects. The raw materials used for the implements and artifacts found from both the habitations and burials are basically iron, copper, gold, semiprecious stone beads, and objects made of other stone. Necklace As evidenced from the findings of Mahurjhari People used to wear the neckalce made of thin golden wire having somtime spiral shaped pendant made of gold wire (Fig.2) or rectangular pendants made of leaf shaped strips having vertically dotted shallow channels design. A number of fragments of gold leaf were found scattered in the sites.these necklaces were interlocked by hooks as found in thr present time. Sometimes these necklace were made out of multi cabled strips of gold wire ended by hooks (Fig.3). Some circular tiny gold bead were also found which suggests that these were also used with the necklaces (Deo 1973: 55). Among other gold ornaments are included necklace with three annular disk having perforation in it probably for stringing, Sometime the necklace has big size overlapped circular pendant (Fig.4).The type like one tiny spiral ring was found that could be used as the pendant purpose and annular type pendant (Fig.5) as found in the case of Mahurjhari was also found at Junapani (IAR : 32-33). At Raipur Small size around one cm size ornament having overlapping ends was also found but the size suggests that it could have been a ring or a pendant. A fragment piece of an interlocked chain with circlets having a spiral shaped pendant was also found (Fig.6) (Deglurkar& Gauri P.Lad 1992:26). At Naikund A number of pieces of gold leaf shaped strips has been found (Deo, 1982: 38). It might have been the part of a pendant like found at Mahurjhari. Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figures 2-4: Necklaces from Mahurjhari 615

6 ISSN Heritage: Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies in Archaeology 4: 2016 Figure 5: Necklace from Junapuri Figure 6: Necklace from Raipur Bead Vidarbha region is very rich in case of beads. A plenty number of beads were found in this area. At Mahurjhari 392 no of beads of various mateials of semiprecious stone like Carnelian, agate etc (Fig.7) were found (Deo 1973: 32-36). Similarlrly a number of beads wee also found at Raipur, Takalghat, khapa (Fig.8, Fig.9, Fig.10). Only the site of Naikund and Junapani is very poor in this case. Figures 7&8: Beads from Mahurjhari Figures 9&10: Beads from Khapa Bangle In case of bangles also the region of Vidarbha is very rich. The sites in this region has given the evidence copper bangle. At Mahurjhari more than sixty bangles were found. They are Circular thick bangle with open end (Fig.11) and the edges have verical line desings (Fig.12). Spiral shaped bangle (Fig.13) were also found at Mahurjhari (Deo 1973: 39-40). At junapani bangles made of fine disk threaded on a copper ware with hooked ends. Some places these bangles are very thick. The evidence of Gold bangle was also found here. The bangle being worn on the radius and ulna of a skeleton (IAR : 32-33). At Raipur among the copper ornaments 46 bangles of varying size were found in association with the skeletal remains in cluster. In one of the megaliths fragments of an arm bone were found sticking to three bangles. Some of the bangles 616

7 Ray and Mohanty 2016: are thick and heavy having etched chevron pattern design at the edges (Fig.14, Fig.15). Another type includes the bangle having open and overlapping ends (Deglurkar& Gauri P.Lad 1992: 25-26). At Naikund also copper bangle pieces and one gold spiral shaped bangle were found. At Khapa the bangles are having open and overlapping ends (Fig.16) (Deo 1970: 51-52). At Bhagimohari also only fragmentary copper bangles similar to that of Takalghat and Mahurjhari were found (IAR : 26-27). Copper bangles are also found at Borgaon (IAR : 40) and Khairwada (IAR : 51-52). Figure 11: Bangles from Mahurjhari Figure 12: Bangles from Mahurjhari Figure 13: Bangles from Mahurjhari Figures 14 & 15: Bangles from Raipur Figure 16: Bangles from Khapa Earrings A complete ear ornament made of gold wire having three coil inserted ending with interloked hooks and a pair of gold circular ear ornemt open in both side(fig.17) are found at Mahurjhari (Deo 1973: 55). At Naikund Besides the spiral gold ear ornament 617

8 ISSN Heritage: Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies in Archaeology 4: 2016 of 2 cm. size having a conical knob at one end was also found. Gold ear ring was also found from Borgaon (IAR : 40). Figure 17: Ear ornamnet from Mahurjhari Horse Ornaments A number of horse ornaments were found from the Vidarbha megalithic sites like to decorate face, head and chest. Only at Junapani except some bells no horse ornaments were found (IAR : 32-33). Bells were also probably one of the important ornaments of horse as at most of the cases they were found in association of horse bone. In present day also in India same bell are used as neck ornament or anklet for the animals like goat, cow etc. So most probably at megalithic time the Vidarbha people might also be using bell for the same purpose. However, Mahurjhari is one of the important sites to yield huge concentration of horse ornaments. A large number of horse ornaments were also recovered for decorating horse. The specimens that are found include (Deo 1973: 40-42): 1. One example comprised of seven member part of copper object: one part is circular at lower portion and at upper portion it is made of two convex shape plates with one straight copper piece at the centre (Fig.18). 2. Another example comprises a group of 5 pieces with rectangular outline with two sides concave and a rectangular projection in the centre; the straight ends have a ring each. Along with these were found eight tubes. All these ornaments were placed over the neck and the chest of a horse in a series (Fig.19). 3. Circular in shape at lower portion and concave at the top and U shaped at upper portion. It has circular ridges at the centre (Fig.20). 4. Semicircular flat copper sheet broader at the centre and narrower at both the sides. And both can be joined at by a tubular bar (Fig.21). 618

9 Ray and Mohanty 2016: U shape copper piece which is circular at lower portion and has circular ridges at circular part and two at U shaped part (Fig.22). 6. One copper piece concave from both the sides, convex from one end and flat at one end having dotted design at the edges (Fig.23). 7. Besides these ornaments a number of bells were also found, one type is having elongated body (Fig.24) and another type included semicircular in shape with thick edge and a smaller ring hold (Fig.25). At Khapa also eight such specimens were found. One is similar type of ornament as Mahurjhari was found (Fig.26). Except that one moon shaped and one axe shaped (Fig.27) ornamental piece was found. At Raipur also similar type of Mahurjhari ornament (Fig.28) was found (Deglurkar& Gauri P.Lad 1992: 26-27).Some of the bells was also recovered at Junapani and Naikund (Fig.29). At Naikund a number of ornamental remains were found like series of copper sheet roundels, joined to one another, a circular piece with conical top, a fragmentary piece with an elongated outline with convex end, conical knob in the centre and with the upper end tubular., a circular ring of copper sheet, a crescentic piece with a horizontal central ridge (Deo 1982:38). At Takalghat 7 no of bell shaped copper object were found scattered over animal bones. 7 no of bell specimens have found (Deo 1970: 51-52). Figure 18 Figure 19 Figure 20 Figure 21 Figure 22 Figure 23 Figures 18-23: Horse ornamets from Mahurjhari 619

10 ISSN Heritage: Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies in Archaeology 4: 2016 Figures 24 & 25: Horse ornamets from Mahurjhari Figures 26 & 27: Horse ornamnets from Khapa Figure 28: Horse ornament from Raipur Figure 29: Bell ornament from Junapani 620

11 Ray and Mohanty 2016: Besides the above ornaments some other ornaments were also found. At Raipur Two circular copper rings were recovered one is very thin with parted end probably a nose ring, two circular copper rings little bit flattened probably a finger ring. Here the above discussion has shown in the below table which shows that the concentration of copper bangles was more used than the other ornaments. Gold was the prefereble materials for the necklace as well as the pendants though it was not locally avilable. A number of findings of the horse ornamnets shows the importance of the horse at that time. However though the number of of all these ornamnets are more but the are almost similar at all places (Table 1). Type of Ornament Table 1: List of sites having various ornament Bangle Necklace Pendant Earr Horse ing ornament Bead Mahurjhari Naikund Raipur * Junapani * * Takalghat * * * Khapa * * * Bhagimohari * * * * Borgaon * * * * * Material Common Feature Copper & Gold Thick Made circular with single open end wire. and sometime overlapping. Gold Gold Gold & Copper of Spiral shaped and leaf shaped strips may be rectangular pendant Copper Almost similar at all site. Semipreciou s stone Barrel circular, biconical shaped, Allways found in association with pots Analysis of Ornaments and Tools A proper analysis of all the ornaments with other associated objects separately will give the clear idea about preference of the ornament, its popularity among specific class of people etc. So all these details are shown in the following tables (Tables 1 5) for proper analysis and conclusion. Totally 69 burials has been excavated in these sites (Mohanty, R.K and S.R. Walimbe.1996:136-49) but we are getting the ornaments only in 31 sites.) 621

12 ISSN Heritage: Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies in Archaeology 4: 2016 Table 2: Ornaments and other artifacts found within each burial Name of the site Burial No. Ornaments Associated artefacts Skeletal remains Mahurjhari Junapani Meg.2 (Loc.1) 6, 3 1, 3 Horse bone Meg.3 (Loc.1) 2, 3,4, 6 1,3 Meg.1 (Loc.2) 4, 5, 6 1, 2 two human morals Meg.1 (Loc.3) 4 2, 3 Meg.2 (Loc.3) 3, 4 2 pieces of human bone Meg.3 (Loc.3) 4 2 Male skeleton, Meg.4 (Loc.3) 2, 3, 4, 6 1, 2, 3 Horse teeth and Bone Meg.6 (Loc.3) 1, 5 3 Human skeleton Meg.8 (Loc.3) 1, 2, 3, 4, 6 2 Human burials (Adult) Meg.9 (Loc.3) 1, 4, 5 2 Double human skeleton Meg.1 (Loc.4) 2, 3 Human skeleton Meg.1 1, 4, 6 1, 2, 3 Meg.2 2, 4 1, 2, 3 Skeleton Naikund Meg.3 (Loc.1) 2 2 Meg.7 (Loc.1) 2, 6 Meg.13 (Loc.1) 6 Horse bone Meg.1 (Loc.3) 4 2 Raipur Meg.1 1, 2, 4 2 Human skeleton Meg.2 2, 3, 4, 6 1, 2, 3 Horse bone Meg.3 1, 3, 4 1, 2, 3 Meg Meg.7 3, 4, 6 2 Skeleton Meg.8 1, 2, 3 Takalghat - Khapa Meg.1 3, 4, 6 2, 3 Animal bones Meg Animal bones Meg Meg.7 3, 4, 6 Khairwada 4 1 Bhagimohari 4 1, 2, 3 Borgaon 5 1, 2 Skeleton of young horse Ornaments: Necklace=1 Pendant =2 Bead = 3 Bangle =4 Earring = 5 Horse ornament and Bell= 6 Associated tools: Agricultural tools = 1, Craftsmen tool = 2 Defensive tool = 3 622

13 Ray and Mohanty 2016: Table 3: Total number of burials where the individual ornaments occurred Name of the object Occurrence in total numbers of burials Necklace 7 Pendant 9 Bead 12 Bangle 19 Earring 4 Horse ornament 14 Agricultural tool 11 Craftsman tool 21 Defensive Tool 13 Human Skeletal remains 10 Horse skeletal remain 7 Table 4: N number of burials where each ornament and each group of tools appeared together Ornament Agricultural tool Craftsman tool Defensive tool Necklace Pendant Bead Bangle Earring Horse ornament Table 5: Number of burials where each ornament and each group of skeletal remains appeared together Ornament Human Horse skeletal Absence of Total Skeletal remains remains recognizable skeletal remains Necklace Pendant Bead Bangle Earring Horse ornament Conclusion The area of Vidarbha first time yielded a number of various ornaments in megalithic contexts. From the above evidences it is proved that the Vidarbha people were well concerned about various ornamentations. All the ornaments found from all these sites are similar in shape or design but they vary from each other in case of size and weight. That proves about different manufactured centre and techniques. Unlike in all the sites where all the ornaments were made of either iron, copper and semiprecious stone, all 623

14 ISSN Heritage: Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies in Archaeology 4: 2016 the neck ornaments except one copper and one earring are made of gold. As this material was not locally available in the region so it can be assumed that it might be traded from outside. However people used very simple neck ornaments made of single gold wire.and among the pendants Spiral design was much more popular during that time. This shape was used for the pendants, bangles. The thick heavy bangle with open ends was also much more popular. Though all these were regarded as the bangles but these ornaments could have been used as the anklet or armlet. Because similar designed bangles are still also used in the modern day as the leg ornament in most of the society especially among the tribal. However looking into the table no.2 it is clear that the copper bangle was the most common and usual ornament as the number is more in comparison to the other ornaments. The megalithic people were not only used the ornaments for themselves but also used so many ornaments for decorating the horse. Horse was most important and popular domesticated animal at the megalithic time as a number of horse skeletons has been recovered from all the sites. And the table no.2 has shown that the number of horse ornaments is more after bangles than the others. Even now a day also the horse is still adorned with a lot of ornaments during any marriage or at any ritual ceremonies at most of the places. However the bells could have been used as ornaments of other animals like sheep, goat etc as all the bells has not been found in association with horse skeletal remains. When all these ornaments are analyzed it can be noticed that there are not much more differences among the megalithic ornaments of Vidarbha and now a days these are still in existence in different parts of India. The spiral designed bangle, thick circular bangles with open ends are also still prevalent at the modern time also. Besides all the above these, here ornaments properly stitched by the leather or clothes tells about the craftsmanship, wealth of the person who buried. Some of the technologies implied for manufacturing the ornaments tells about the craftsmanship like incase of bell both craftsmanship and coppersmith put into work. Some of the horse ornaments similar things has been seen like copper ornaments were used for decorating the body and iron was used for riveting. All these ornaments are associated mostly in association with the craftsman tools like chisel, axe as proved from the table no.3 as the number of burials where each type of ornaments and the craftsman tools appeared together are more than the other tools. It proves that these ornaments though were used among the warrior as well as the agricultural class of people but it might have been dominating ornaments of the craftsman community. And among the warrior class people were giving more emphasis on decorating the horse with various ornament than themselves. Acknowledgement I am thankful to ICHR who is providing me financial support for my research and attending conferences. I also convey my special thanks to ASI, Bhopal for providing me opportunity to present a paper in the conference. I also covey my gratitude to Deccan 624

15 Ray and Mohanty 2016: college for allowing me to carry out my research work and especially to Prof. R.K Mohanty, my supervisor, who guided me in completing this article. Among my friends I am thankful to Tilok Thakuria, Shantanu Vaidya, Wannapath, Arunima Pati who rendered their help and support. References Bednarik, R.G Palaeolithic art in India, ME XVIII (2): Binford, L.R Mortuary Practices: Their Study and their Potential, In an Archaeological Perspective (L.R. Binford. Ed), New York: Seminar Press, Chapmann, R.W, Burial Practices: An Area of Mutual interest and Archaeology and Anthropology: Areas of Mutual interest. Spriggs M (ed.). BAR Supplementary series, 19, Oxford: British Anthropological reports, Deglurkar, G.B & Gauri P.Lad, 1992.Megalithic Raipur ( ), Deccan College, Pune. Deo, S.B, Excavations at Takalghat and Khapa ( ), Nagpur University, Nagpur.) Deo, S.B Mahurjhari Excavation ( ), Nagpur University, Nagpur. Deo, S.B, A.P, Jamkhedkar, Excavation at Naikund ( ), Department of Archaeology and Museums, Govt. of Maharashtra. Doran J Computer models as Tools for Archaeological Hypothesis Formation in Models in Archaeology, Clarke, D.L. (ed.). London: Metheun, pp Hodson, F.R, Quantifying Hallstatt: Some Initial results, American Antiquity 42: IAR, , Archaeological Survey of India. IAR, , Archaeological Survey of India. IAR, , Archaeological Survey of India IAR, , Archaeological Survey of India. Kendall, D.G, Seriations from Abundances Natrices. In Mathematics in the Archaeological and Historical Sciences, Hodson, F.R, etal. (Eds.). Edinburgh: Edinburgh Univ. Press, pp Mohanty, R.K & P.S. Joshi, The Megalithic Problem of Vidarbha: Retrospect and Prospects. In (C. Margabandhu and K.S Ramchandran Eds.), Spectrum of Indian Culture: , NewDelhi: Agam Kala Prakashan. Mohanty, R.K and S.R. Walimbe An investigation into the mortuary practices of Vidarbha Megalithic cultures. In (C. Margabandhu and K.S Ramchandran Eds.), Spectrum of Indian Culture: , New Delhi: Agam Kala Prakashan. Mohanty, R.K. & Selvakumar, V The Archaeology of megaliths in India: In Settar, S. & R. Korisettar (eds.) Indian Archaeology in Retrospect. Vol1, prehistory, Archaeology of South Asia. New Delhi: Indian council of Historical research and Manohar publishers, Moorti, U.S, Megalithic Culture of South India: Socio-Economic perspectives. Varanasi: Ganga Kaveri Publishing House. 625

16 ISSN Heritage: Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies in Archaeology 4: 2016 Shennan, S., The Social Organization at Branc. Antiquity 49: Sonawane, V.H Harappan Gold ornaments from Nagwada, Gujarat, in SIC (C. Margabandhu and K.S. Ramachandran Eds.) pp Delhi: Agam Kala Prakashan. Tainter J. A Social Inference and Mortuary Practices: An Experiment in Numerical Classification, World Archaeology 7(1): Van De Velde, P, The Social Anthropology of a Neolithic Cemetery in the Neanderthals, Current Anthropology 20:

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