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1 Florida State University Libraries Electronic Theses, Treatises and Dissertations The Graduate School 2004 Gender, Context, and Figurine Use: Ceramic Images from the Formative Period San Andrés Site, Tabasco, Mexico Maria B. Derilo Tway Follow this and additional works at the FSU Digital Library. For more information, please contact

2 THE FLORIDA STATE UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF ARTS AND SCIENCES GENDER, CONTEXT, AND FIGURINE USE: CERAMIC IMAGES FROM THE FORMATIVE PERIOD SAN ANDRÉS SITE, TABASCO, MEXICO By MARIA B. DERILO TWAY A Thesis submitted to the Department of Anthropology in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts Degree Awarded: Summer Semester, 2004

3 The members of the Committee approve the Thesis of Maria B. Derilo Tway defended on April 23, Mary Pohl Professor Directing Thesis Kathryn Josserand Committee Member Michael Uzendoski Committee Member Dean Falk Department Chair The Office of Graduate Studies has verified and approved the above named committee members. ii

4 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS With sincere gratitude for giving me the opportunity to study the San Andrés figurines, and whose patience, understanding, and guidance throughout this whole endeavor made its completion possible, I acknowledge Dr. Mary Pohl. For her guidance, support, and encouragement throughout my graduate experience, with heartfelt gratitude I acknowledge Dr. Kathryn Josserand. For offering much-needed additional perspective in my study and for his support, I acknowledge Dr. Michael Uzendoski. For his kind hospitality and encouragement at the New World Archaeological Foundation laboratory in Chiapas, Mexico, I acknowledge Dr. John Clark. For helping me with the chronological framework and for sharing his ceramic expertise to aid in my study of the figurines, I acknowledge Christopher von Nagy. For their unconditional love and support, and for teaching me to follow my dreams, I acknowledge with infinite gratitude my parents, Apolinar and Salvacion Derilo. For opening their hearts and their home to me and my family during the last part of my journey, and for their love and support, I acknowledge with deep gratitude my sister Rachel and her family: Marty, Ryan, and Evan Baranek, without whose generosity I would not have been able to complete the writing of this manuscript. For teaching me to never stop learning through his own thirst for knowledge, and for his love and support, I acknowledge my brother Jerome Derilo. For their love and encouragement, and for always keeping it real, I acknowledge my dear friends Jen Benny, Tess Bolin, Johanna Rubio, Cristine Shaw, and Rea Sollestre. For their friendship and support throughout my graduate experience, I acknowledge Thadra Palmer Stanton, Jennie Leigh McLamb, and Ayumi Rikitake Iida. iii

5 For providing his photographic expertise to produce the pictures of the San Andrés figurines, for showing me how to take a decent picture or two, for helping me with my figures and tables, for preventing my computer from dying before I finished, for having faith in me, for being a great dad to our baby girl, and for his unending support, encouragement, and love, I acknowledge with deepest gratitude my husband, Mark Tway. He has been my knight, my rock, my shelter, and my reason, without whose help I would not have been able to complete this manuscript. Mahal kita. For giving me first-hand knowledge on the intricacies and anxieties involved with pregnancy, childbirth, and motherhood, and for just being my little ray of sunshine sent from above, I acknowledge my daughter, Arianna Tway. iv

6 TABLE OF CONTENTS List of Tables... Page vii List of Figures... Page viii Abstract... Page xvii 1. INTRODUCTION... Page 1 Methodology... Page 5 Summary... Page 6 2. THE SAN ANDRÉS FIGURINE COLLECTION... Page 8 The San Andrés Area... Page 8 The San Andrés Ceramic Figurines... Page 14 Discussion... Page GENDER IN SAN ANDRÉS FIGURINES... Page 36 Gender Studies... Page 36 Female Figurine Torsos... Page 37 Female Figurine Heads... Page 42 Male Figurine Torsos... Page 50 Male Figurine Heads... Page 55 Summary... Page FIGURINE CONTEXT AT SAN ANDRÉS... Page 60 Special Features and Stratigraphic Levels... Page 61 Summary... Page OLMEC IMAGERY AND LA VENTA FIGURINES... Page 78 Introduction... Page 78 La Venta... Page 80 A Comparison of San Andrés Figurines with La Venta Figurines... Page 82 Rusts's Excavations at La Venta... Page 90 Zoomorphic Figurines... Page 92 v

7 Discussion... Page FIGURINE STUDIES IN MESOAMERICA... Page 101 Introduction... Page 101 San Lorenzo..... Page 101 Tres Zapotes... Page 103 Grijalva River: Chiapa de Corzo... Page 106 Mazatán Region on the Pacific Slope... Page 108 Cuello... Page 108 Basin of Mexico... Page 111 Chalcatzingo... Page 114 Oaxaca Valley... Page 117 Summary... Page FIGURINE USE AT SAN ANDRÉS... Page 122 Interpretations of Figurine Use through the Archaeological Record... Page 123 Ethnohistoric Records on Figurine Use in Mesoamerica... Page 126 Ethnographic Accounts of Figurine Use in Central America Page 128 Discussion... Page SUMMARY... Page 136 Figurine Manufacture... Page 138 Formative Period Figurines in Mesoamerica... Page 139 APPENDICES A Catalogue of San Andrés Ceramic Figurines... Page 142 B San Andrés Description Sheet... Page 232 C San Andrés Figurine Dimensions... Page 235 D San Andrés Figurine Colors... Page 243 E Gender: San Andrés Figurine Heads... Page 257 F Gender: San Andrés Figurine Torsos... Page 259 BIBLIOGRAPHY... Page 261 BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH... Page 275 vi

8 LIST OF TABLES Table 2.1: Complete Chronological Distribution of San Andrés Figurines... Page 15 Table 2.2: Solid vs. Hollow Figurines... Page 16 Table 2.3: Fired vs. Unfired Figurines... Page 18 Table 2.4: Average Dimensions for Large Figurines... Page 19 Table 2.5: Average Dimensions for Small Figurines... Page 19 Table 2.6: Average Dimensions for Miniature Figurines... Page 19 Table 2.7: Color Distribution of San Andrés Figurines... Page 21 vii

9 LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1.1: Map of the San Andrés Site... Page 2 Figure 2.1: Map of San Andrés and La Venta... Page 9 Figure 2.2: Chronology of San Andrés... Page 11 Figure 2.3: San Andrés Stratigraphy... Page 12 Figure 2.4: Site Map of the San Andrés Area... Page 13 Figure 2.5: San Andrés Chronological Distribution of Figurine Color... Page 22 Figure 2.6: Examples of San Andrés Figurines with Red Pigment... Page 24 Figure 2.7: Map of Chiapa de Corzo... Page 25 Figure 2.8: Style I Figurines... Page 27 Figure 2.9: Style II Figurines... Page 27 Figure 2.10: Style III Figurines... Page 28 Figure 2.11: San Andrés Chronological Figurine Style Distribution... Page 29 Figure 2.12: Examples of Figurines with Head Sockets and Tenons... Page 31 Figure 2.13: Examples of Standing Figurines... Page 33 Figure 2.14: Examples of Disproportionate Feet... Page 34 Figure 2.15: Examples of Seated Figurines... Page 34 Figure 3.1: San Andrés Female Figurines... Page 38 Figure 3.2: Examples of Follensbee's Illustrations of La Venta Female Garments and Ornaments... Page 39 viii

10 Figure 3.3: Examples of San Andrés Female Torsos with Clothing... Page 40 Figure 3.4: Examples of San Andrés Female Torsos with Clothing... Page 41 Figure 3.5: Follensbee's Illustrations of La Venta Figurine Hairstyles, Headdresses, and Ornaments... Page 43 Figure 3.6: Examples of Female Figures in Mesoamerica... Page 44 Figure 3.7: San Andrés Female Figurine Heads... Page 45 Figure 3.8: Examples of San Andrés Figurine Torsos with Pendants... Page 47 Figure 3.9: La Venta Greenstone Female Figurine with Red Pigment and Hematite Mirror Pendant... Page 48 Figure 3.10: Examples of San Andrés Figurine Heads with Earspools and Head Ornaments... Page 49 Figure 3.11: Examples of Male-Gendered Clothing in Mesoamerica... Page 52 Figure 3.12: Follensbee's Illustrations of La Venta Male Figurine Garments... Page 53 Figure 3.13: San Andrés Male Figurine Torsos... Page 54 Figure 3.14: San Andrés Male Figurine Heads... Page 56 Figure 3.15: Seated Bald Male Figure with Mustache and Beard, Antonio Plaza Monument 1, Veracruz... Page 57 Figure 4.1: Markers for Feasting in the Archaeological Record... Page 62 Figure 4.2: San Andrés Unit 1, Features Page 64 Figure 4.3: San Andrés Figurines from Unit 1 North, Feature 9... Page 65 Figure 4.4: San Andrés Figurines from Unit 3, Level Page 67 Figure 4.5: Figurines from Unit 8, Level 5... Page 69 Figure 4.6: San Andrés Stratigraphic Profile of Units 7 and 8... Page 70 ix

11 Figure 4.7: San Andrés Artifacts from Units 7 & 8 Feasting Midden... Page 72 Figure 4.8: San Andrés Figurines from Unit 7, BGS Clay Levels... Page 73 Figure 4.9: San Andrés Figurines from Unit 8, Feature Page 74 Figure 4.10: Figurines from Unit 8, Level 7... Page 76 Figure 5.1: Offering 4 from La Venta Complex A... Page 79 Figure 5.2: San Andrés Figurine Heads Similar to La Venta Figurine Heads... Page 81 Figure 5.3: San Andrés Figurine Torsos Similar to La Venta Torsos... Page 83 Figure 5.4: San Andrés Figurine Torsos Found in Association with Hand L-132 Page 84 Figure 5.5: Hands... Page 86 Figure 5.6: Line Drawing of Mural 1 from Oxtotitlan Cave, Guerrero... Page 87 Figure 5.7: Potrero Nuevo Monument 2 From Loma del Zapote, Veracruz... Page 87 Figure 5.8: Examples of San Andrés Bird Figurines... Page 91 Figure 5.9: Pottery Duck from Las Bocas... Page 91 Figure 5.10: Duck Bill Masks... Page 92 Figure 5.11: Examples of Duck Masks... Page 93 Figure 5.12: Muscovy Duck... Page 95 Figure 5.13: Pygmy Owl... Page 95 Figure 5.14: Jaguar Images... Page 97 Figure 5.15: Paca... Page 97 Figure 5.16: Bats... Page 97 Figure 6.1: Comparative Early and Middle Formative Sites within Mesoamerica Page 102 x

12 Figure 6.2: San Lorenzo Palangana Phase Figurines... Page 104 Figure 6.3: San Andrés and Tres Zapotes Figurine Heads... Page 105 Figure 6.4: Examples of Tres Zapotes Figurine Torsos... Page 105 Figure 6.5: San Andrés Figurine Heads... Page 107 Figure 6.6: Chiapa de Corzo Figurine Heads... Page 107 Figure 6.7: Figurine Torsos from Paso de la Amada... Page 109 Figure 6.8: Figurines with Possible Mirrors on Heads... Page 109 Figure 6.9: Ceramic Figurine Heads from the Pacific Coast... Page 110 Figure 6.10: Examples of Ceramic Figurines from Cuello... Page 112 Figure 6.11: Vaillant's Types D1 and D2 Figurine Heads from Zacatenco... Page 113 Figure 6.12: Examples of Tlatilco Figurines... Page 115 Figure 6.13: Examples of Chalcatzingo C8 Figurine Heads and Figurine Torsos Page 116 Figure 6.14: Oaxaca Figurine Heads... Page 118 Figure 6.15: Oaxaca Figurine Torsos, San José Phase... Page 119 Figure 7.1: Examples of Pregnant Torsos from Chalcatzingo... Page 124 Figure 7.2: Painting of Ix Chel Holding Two Rain Deities... Page 127 Figure 7.3: Examples of Otomí Cutout Figures... Page 129 Figure A.1: San Andrés Figurine L Page 144 Figure A.2: San Andrés Figurine A Page 145 Figure A.3: San Andrés Figurine H Page 146 Figure A.4: San Andrés Figurine T Page 147 xi

13 Figure A.5: San Andrés Figurine T Page 148 Figure A.6: San Andrés Figurine H Page 149 Figure A.7: San Andrés Figurine H Page 150 Figure A.8: San Andrés Figurine H Page 151 Figure A.9: San Andrés Figurine H Page 152 Figure A.10: San Andrés Figurine H Page 153 Figure A.11: San Andrés Figurine T Page 154 Figure A.12: San Andrés Figurines T-09 and T Page 155 Figure A.13: San Andrés Figurine L Page 156 Figure A.14: San Andrés Figurine A Page 157 Figure A.15: San Andrés Figurine A Page 158 Figure A.16: San Andrés Figurine T Page 159 Figure A.17: San Andrés Figurine L Page 160 Figure A.18: San Andrés Figurine A Page 161 Figure A.19: San Andrés Figurine H Page 162 Figure A.20: San Andrés Figurine H Page 164 Figure A.21: San Andrés Figurine H Page 165 Figure A.22: San Andrés Figurine H Page 166 Figure A.23: San Andrés Figurine H Page 167 Figure A.24: San Andrés Figurine H Page 168 Figure A.25: San Andrés Figurine H Page 169 xii

14 Figure A.26: San Andrés Figurine H Page 170 Figure A.27: San Andrés Figurine H Page 171 Figure A.28: San Andrés Figurine H Page 172 Figure A.29: San Andrés Figurines H-28, H-29, H Page 173 Figure A.30: San Andrés Figurine H Page 174 Figure A.31: San Andrés Figurine H Page 175 Figure A.32: San Andrés Figurine H Page 176 Figure A.33: San Andrés Figurine H Page 177 Figure A.34: San Andrés Figurine H Page 178 Figure A.35: San Andrés Figurine H Page 178 Figure A.36: San Andrés Figurine H Page 180 Figure A.37: San Andrés Figurine H Page 180 Figure A.38: San Andrés Figurine H Page 181 Figure A.39: San Andrés Figurine H Page 182 Figure A.40: San Andrés Figurine H Page 183 Figure A.41: San Andrés Figurine T Page 184 Figure A.42: San Andrés Figurine T Page 185 Figure A.43: San Andrés Figurine T Page 186 Figure A.44: San Andrés Figurine T Page 187 Figure A.45: San Andrés Figurine T Page 188 Figure A.46: San Andrés Figurine T Page 189 xiii

15 Figure A.47: San Andrés Figurine T Page 190 Figure A.48: San Andrés Figurine T Page 191 Figure A.49: San Andrés Figurine T Page 192 Figure A.50: San Andrés Figurine T Page 193 Figure A.51: San Andrés Figurine T Page 194 Figure A.52: San Andrés Figurine T Page 195 Figure A.53: San Andrés Figurine T Page 196 Figure A.54: San Andrés Figurine T Page 197 Figure A.55: San Andrés Figurine T Page 198 Figure A.56: San Andrés Figurine T Page 199 Figure A.57: San Andrés Figurine T Page 200 Figure A.58: San Andrés Figurine T Page 201 Figure A.59: San Andrés Figurine T Page 202 Figure A.60: San Andrés Figurine T Page 203 Figure A.61: San Andrés Figurine T Page 204 Figure A.62: San Andrés Figurine T Page 205 Figure A.63: San Andrés Figurine T Page 206 Figure A.64: San Andrés Figurine T Page 207 Figure A.65: San Andrés Figurine T Page 208 Figure A.66: San Andrés Figurine T Page 209 Figure A.67: San Andrés Figurine L Page 211 xiv

16 Figure A.68 San Andrés Figurines L-98 and L Page 211 Figure A.69: San Andrés Figurine L Page 212 Figure A.70: San Andrés Figurine L Page 212 Figure A.71: San Andrés Figurine L Page 213 Figure A.72: San Andrés Figurines L-123 and L Page 213 Figure A.73: San Andrés Figurines L-131 and L Page 214 Figure A.74: San Andrés Figurine L Page 214 Figure A.75: San Andrés Figurine L Page 215 Figure A.76: San Andrés Figurine L Page 215 Figure A.77: San Andrés Figurine A Page 216 Figure A.78: San Andrés Figurine A Page 217 Figure A.79: San Andrés Figurine A Page 218 Figure A.80: San Andrés Figurine A Page 219 Figure A.81: San Andrés Figurine H Page 220 Figure A.82: San Andrés Figurine H Page 221 Figure A.83: San Andrés Figurine H Page 222 Figure A.84: San Andrés Figurine H Page 223 Figure A.85: San Andrés Figurine H Page 224 Figure A.86: San Andrés Figurine H Page 225 Figure A.87: San Andrés Figurine H Page 226 Figure A.88: San Andrés Figurine T Page 227 xv

17 Figure A.89 San Andrés Figurine T Page 228 Figure A.90: San Andrés Figurine T Page 229 Figure A.91: San Andrés Figurine A Page 231 xvi

18 ABSTRACT Ceramic anthropomorphic and zoomorphic figurines occur abundantly throughout Mesoamerica during the Middle Formative period. At the site of San Andrés in Tabasco, Mexico, archaeological excavations have recovered such figurines. The context in which they were found indicates that they were used in household areas, some of which may have been related to ritual or feasting activities. A comparison of Formative period figurines from other areas in Mesoamerica demonstrates their occurrence in household areas, and as being mostly of the female gender, particularly during the Middle Formative period. The strong similarities between figurines from San Andrés and the nearby Middle Formative center of La Venta provide evidence of close interaction between the two sites and suggest that ritual behavior at San Andrés was influenced by La Venta Olmec ideology. The combination of the physical characteristics of the figurines, the contextual information, and well as ethnohistorical and ethnographic sources suggest that the San Andrés figurines may have been used for life events involving pregnancy, birth, injury or illness, or for depicting mythical or historical events. This study proposes that the ceramic figurines from San Andrés may have functioned to embody animate forces or beings of the supernatural realm that were called upon to ensure productive and reproductive success for the inhabitants of this area during the Middle Formative period. xvii

19 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION The appearance of abundant hand-modeled, ceramic figurines from BC is a distinctive characteristic of the Early and Middle Formative periods in Mesoamerica. In particular, small, female figurines proliferate in the archaeological record during the Middle Formative Period (ca BC). Many archaeological investigations in Mesoamerica have unearthed figurines in burials, household areas, and middens. At San Andrés, a secondary elite site on the outskirts of the major center of La Venta, excavations have recovered figurines associated with contexts indicating ritual and feasting activities in household areas. The fact that early figurines of similar size, composition, and gender proliferate in the Middle Formative period, and mostly occur in fragmentary fashion in residential living spaces, indicates that a significant social phenomenon occurred in Mesoamerica. The San Andrés figurines are significant because they offer clues to specific activities that occurred at this site. The figurines signify that ritual and feasting activities occurred, that these activities probably involved elite members of the community, and that social differentiation and complexity existed in this area. The study of the San Andrés figurines is significant in that it demonstrates ritual behavior at residential spaces outside of the La Venta center and contributes to the knowledge of Middle Formative figurine use in Mesoamerica. The site of La Venta was the prominent Middle Formative Mesoamerican center located in the Gulf Coast region of Mexico, with dense settlement and monumental architecture. San Andrés (Figure 1.1) is a secondary elite center within the La Venta polity, located 5 kilometers northeast of La Venta, in Tabasco, Mexico. Investigations in 1997 and 1998 yielded 306 figurine specimens from San Andrés, providing an opportunity to investigate the link between San Andrés and La Venta. A comparative study of figurines from various sites in Mesoamerica 1

20 Figure The San Andrés Site along the Barí River (Adapted from Pohl and Pope 1998: Fig. 1 and Pope et al 2001: Fig. 1) 2

21 shows that the figurines most similar to the San Andrés figurines are from the neighboring Middle Formative Olmec center of La Venta. The San Andrés figurines shed light on the structure of the La Venta polity by helping to define the nature of secondary elite sites within this polity. The first goal of this thesis is to provide detailed descriptive data, identify characteristics that distinguish between genders, and document contextual information for the San Andrés figurines. A comparative study of the physical characteristics of ceramic figurines within Mesoamerica distinguishes similarities and differences in stylistic attributes with the San Andrés figurines. The comparisons also provide evidence for interaction that took place between San Andrés and the site of La Venta. The second goal of this study is to discuss possible reasons for figurine use in order to provide a better understanding of ritual practices and beliefs at the San Andrés site. The site of San Andrés was first discovered through survey and excavation conducted by William Rust in 1986 and 1987 (Rust 1988). His work revealed evidence for Early Formative occupation along the Gulf Coast in the La Venta area that preceded Olmec occupation. Drs. Mary Pohl and Kevin Pope carried out further investigations at San Andrés in 1997 and Their research has revealed evidence for even earlier occupation, with maize agriculture dating to the Archaic period, ca BC, and has provided data on the Early and Middle Formative occupations (Pohl and Pope 1998, Pope et al. 2001). Chapter 2 discusses the occupational sequence at the site of San Andrés supported by the radiocarbon chronology and the ceramic chronology provided by project ceramicist Christopher von Nagy. The distribution of the figurines within this chronology is presented in Chapter 2 along with a figurine classification system. These data provide the basis for making comparisons with figurines from La Venta and other Formative sites. Given the abundance of Middle Formative figurines, their use is a significant question. Lack of information is due to many factors. One factor is that a systematic means for determining gender characteristics of anthropomorphic figurines has been absent until recently (Follensbee 2000), making it difficult to know what the figurines actually represent. Chapter 3 discusses the gender characteristics of the San Andrés figurines, the majority of which have been identified as females. Only a small number of male figures and zoomorphic figures are present. 3

22 Another reason that figurine use remains elusive is that good contextual information is often not available. Ceramic figurines are sometimes found in secondary or tertiary contexts, such as construction fill in house middens, making it difficult for archaeologists to form ideas about their uses. Chapter 4 provides contextual information of the San Andrés figurines. They were found in household areas where food production and consumption took place. Food consumption sometimes occurred in the context of feasting. Artifacts associated with the figurines include large serving vessels for special occasions and high-status, imported objects made of jade, serpentine, and obsidian. The figurines themselves wear round pendants on their chests that most likely depict mirrors, which were high status paraphernalia traded extensively during the Middle Formative Period. Complete figurines are absent in the collection. The figurines were probably deliberately broken. Archaeologists recovered heads, torsos, limbs, and undetermined fragments at San Andrés. Whole figurines are less frequently encountered than fragments at many Formative Mesoamerican sites. Another factor contributing to the scarcity of material on figurine use is that their functions appear to relate to ritual behavior, the meanings of which cannot be completely reconstructed. Much of the previous literature on figurine use has been limited or simplified to "fertility cult" ideas that lacked empirical evidence. By comparing figurines from various areas in Mesoamerica and their contextual data, as well as utilizing ethnohistoric and ethnographic resources on cultures in Central America, one may narrow down possibilities for the purpose of the figurines. Chapter 5 compares the San Andrés figurines with those from La Venta. The San Andrés figurines provide evidence of ritual behavior of the inhabitants of a secondary elite settlement in the La Venta polity during the Middle Formative Period. They also provide a link with the center of La Venta through shared physical characteristics of the figurines, which indicates a sharing of ideologies. Chapter 6 makes further comparisons of the San Andrés figurines with other Early and Middle Formative Mesoamerican figurines. The regions include the lowland Gulf Coast area of Tabasco and Veracruz (La Venta, San Lorenzo, and Tres Zapotes), the central Grijalva River depression of Chiapas bridging the Pacific slope and the Gulf Coast (Chiapa de Corzo), the Pacific slope of Mexico (Mazatán region), the early Maya site of Cuello in Belize, the Basin of Mexico (Zacatenco, Gualupita, and Tlatilco), the highlands of Morelos 4

23 (Chalcatzingo), and the Oaxaca Valley (San José Mogote). The comparisons are based on published photographs as well as descriptive data for the sites listed. This comparative study supports the idea that interaction took place between La Venta and San Andrés by showing the close resemblance between the two figurine collections. Chapter 6 also examines the contextual information of the figurines from these sites to provide a broader context for the La Venta polity. The combination of gender characteristics and contextual information suggests that the San Andrés figurines were used during ritual activities that revolved around the need to ensure fecundity and power. Chapter 7 discusses the function and meaning of these ceramic images. Models of figurine use based on archaeological materials from Chalcatzingo, Oaxaca, and Lagartero are presented. Ethnohistoric and ethnographic materials on the Yucatec Maya, the Lacandon Maya, the Otomí, and the Q'eqchi' provide information on figurine use among later cultures of Central America. I argue that the significance of the mimetic faculty (Taussig 1993), the ability to copy something and draw power from the copy, provides a key to understanding figurine function. This additional perspective allows me to propose that through the making and use of the figurines, the San Andrés inhabitants were attempting to capture the spirit of things, and in turn, to draw power from what these ceramic images represented. Methodology The analysis of the San Andrés figurines is based primarily on the descriptive data obtained for each specimen. Primary data consist of descriptions on figurine manufacture and construction, including information on fingerprints found on four figurines indicating the gender of their makers. The data on figurine manufacture includes analysis of composition (solid and hollow), firing, dimensions (length, width, thickness), color (based on the Munsell color chart), temper, and form (anthropomorphic, zoomorphic). The form of the figurine was further identified as being a head, torso, or limb fragment, and individual characteristics were recorded to provide a more detailed description. Those specimens whose forms were difficult to determine were put into a category designated as unidentifiable. In addition to the descriptive 5

24 data recorded on figurine forms (see Appendix B), a complete catalogue of figurine fragments from San Andrés is provided in Appendix A, including provenience, photographs, descriptions, and the ceramic phase with which each figurine is associated. Secondary data include a provisional typology of the figurine heads and a discussion of decoration techniques (Chapter 2). This provisional typology presents analysis of decorative techniques as well as stylistic changes in the figurines through time. The format for the San Andrés figurine typology follows those used by Drucker (1952) and Lee (1969), but in a more simplified manner due to the smaller sample size. The gender of the figurines was identified (Chapter 3) through the approach proposed by Billie Follensbee (2000) in her study of Middle Formative Olmec figurines. Her study lends support to the identification of the San Andrés figurines as La Venta Olmec. In addition to the context of the San Andrés figurines (Chapter 4), the comparative information from other Mesoamerican sites (Chapters 5 and 6) becomes a significant source in helping to understand possible uses of figurines at San Andrés. Comparisons of figurines and figurine contexts from contemporaneous sites within Mesoamerica were carried out by examining the photographs and descriptions within the available literature. Another crucial source to understanding figurine use is through ethnohistoric and ethnographic materials on figurine use in Central American cultures (Chapter 7). Summary The San Andrés figurines provide evidence for Middle Formative period ritual activity in a secondary elite center of the La Venta polity. The intent of this research is to provide a descriptive core for the San Andrés figurines and to find possible reasons for the use of these figurines. A classification system and a catalogue of the figurines provides a foundation with which to make comparisons with Formative period figurines from surrounding areas in Mesoamerica. Through this core data, the defining characteristics of the San Andrés figurines are revealed, as well as supporting evidence of interaction between San Andrés and La Venta. The similarities between figurines from San Andrés and Chiapa de Corzo also reveal interaction 6

25 between these two areas and lend support to current research showing that San Andrés was part of an exchange system along the Grijalva River. The comparative information demonstrates that although the figurines vary from site to site, the figurines also display characteristics and techniques that may have been shared through a network of exchange within Mesoamerica during the Formative period. The examination of gender characteristics of figurines, and the special features and contexts in which the figurines were found, provide keys to determining figurine use. The majority of the figurines were representative of females of reproductive age, many of whom may have been of elite status. A small number of the figurines were males and zoomorphic figures. The figurines were found in fragments, as though they were deliberately broken before disposal. They were found in household middens and trash deposits including those suggesting feasting activities. Imported objects obtained through gift exchange, such as greenstone, were found in association with the figurines, along with large serving vessels that were broken. The images of the figurines include females during pregnancy, individuals with illnesses or injuries, and individuals of elite status. I propose that through the point of view of mimesis, the figurines were made and used to embody the essence or animate force of these individuals. The figurines provided the people at San Andrés a means by which to communicate with animate forces existing in supernatural realms. Furthermore, I propose that the figurines were used during ritual activities for various occasions including healing, pregnancy and childbirth, and worshipping ceremonies. During these activities, the household or community sought out the powers of supernatural forces to ensure productive and reproductive success. 7

26 CHAPTER 2 THE SAN ANDRÉS FIGURINE COLLECTION The San Andrés Area Initial investigations carried out by William Rust in 1986 revealed the existence of the now extinct Río Barí (Figure 2.1), which flowed north of La Venta and emptied into the Gulf of Mexico (Rust and Sharer 1988:103). Recent paleoecological studies have revealed that the Barí River was established in the La Venta area around 800 B.C. (Pohl and Pope 1998, Pope et al. 2001). The studies also show that the formation of fertile river levees are associated with the rise of civilization in the La Venta region sometime after 800 B.C. Evidence for Middle Formative occupation contemporaneous with La Venta occurs along the channels of the Barí River. Situated 5 kilometers northeast of La Venta, San Andrés is one such site along the Barí river. It shows evidence of discontinuous occupation starting in the Archaic period and extending to the Middle Formative period (ca B.C). The entire Middle Formative period is represented in well-stratified deposits at San Andrés, allowing observation of developments in Middle Formative culture over time. Chronology Ceramic analysis by Christopher von Nagy (1999, 2001) has provided an occupational sequence (Figure 2.2) for the site excavations, complementing a paleoecological coring program (Figure 2.3). Evidence of early human settlement and maize agriculture date to the Archaic period, ca B.C. (Pohl and Pope 1998, Pope et al 2001). The earliest ceramic evidence, known as the Estero phase, is equivalent to the Early Barí phase at La Venta, ca B.C. Settlement continued as the environment changed from an estuary to a marsh. Traces of 8

27 Figure Map of San Andrés and La Venta (from Pope et al. 2001: Figure 1) 9

28 occupation have been found in the Molina phase, which dates from B.C. More specifically, the Molina phase is represented by an intact pit with a burned tecomate fragment, squash seeds, and a figurine from Unit 1 (Figure 2.4) at San Andrés. After this time, a long hiatus occurred, lasting about two to three hundred years during which no evidence for human occupation has been found at San Andrés. Settlement began anew and intensified during the early Middle Formative period, when the Barí river was established in the area, and fertile levee lands provided farmers with good soil for their crops. The sequence of Middle Formative occupation at San Andrés begins with the Early Puente phase ( B.C.). Materials from this phase were found in old surface and floor areas from Unit 1 and at the base of Unit 3 (von Nagy 1999). San Andrés reached its fluorescence during the following Late Puente phase ( B.C.) and the Early Franco phase ( /500 B.C.). Materials from the Late Puente phase is represented by evidence of settlement in Unit 5, refuse midden from Unit 3, and in the base of Units 7 and 8 (von Nagy 1999). The best representation of the Late Puente phase, however, is found as a special deposit (Feature 9) in a pit of Unit 1. Early Franco materials occur in a series of floors from Unit 5, a large pit with many reburned sherds from Unit 1 (Feature 4), midden-like materials from Unit 3, and a deposition of feasting refuse from Units 7 and 8 (von Nagy 1999). During the Late Franco phase (550/ B.C.), occupation began to diminish and ceased around 350 B.C., possibly due to flooding that occurred during this time. Materials from the Late Franco phase were found in Unit 1 and Unit 3, as well as a small amount from Units 7 and 8 (von Nagy 1999). Another hiatus of unknown duration occurred after the Late Franco phase. 10

29 11

30 Figure San Andrés Stratigraphy (from Pope et al. 2001: Figure 2) 12

31 13 Figure Site map of the San Andrés area. Contours are in meters. (Map by Allison Perrett and Greg Heide)

32 The San Andrés Ceramic Figurines San Andrés provides evidence for Middle Formative Olmec residential life that has rarely been excavated by archaeologists. Figurines located around domestic areas offer clues to life outside of the public ceremonial spaces of La Venta. Units 1, 3, 5, 7, and 8 at San Andrés yielded figurine fragments (see Figure 2.4). The total number of figurine fragments uncovered was 306 specimens (Table 2.1), representing the Molina phase ( B.C.), the Early Puente phase ( B.C.), the Late Puente phase ( B.C.), the Early Franco phase ( /500 B.C.), and the Late Franco phase (550/ B.C.). About 2 percent of the figurines fall in the Molina levels, 2 percent in the Early Puente levels, 14 percent in the Late Puente levels, 58 percent in the Early Franco levels, 17 percent in the Late Franco levels, and about 6 percent are from mixed levels. The Early Franco levels include materials from a slump in Units 7 and 8, referred to as feasting refuse (24 figurine fragments), and materials from pump sump salvage (8 figurine fragments). An examination of figurine construction, stylistic variation, and depiction can provide clues to raw materials available, relationships with neighboring groups, and local belief systems. The following analysis discusses the San Andrés figurine characteristics. The San Andrés figurines are all fragments, with the exception of one small, complete infant or dwarf figurine. The figurines fall into five main categories: heads, torsos, limbs, animals, and unidentifiable fragments. General characteristics that were examined for all of the figurines were whether a fragment was solid or hollow, fired or not fired, dimensions of the fragment (length, width, and thickness), color based on the standardized Munsell chart, and the paste or temper (see description sheet in Appendix B). Of the 306 figurine pieces, approximately 56 percent are limbs, 14 percent are torsos, 13 percent are heads, 13 percent are unidentifiable fragments, and 3 percent are animal fragments. Fifteen limb fragments were mixed with general pottery sherds and were not analyzed at the time of this study. Thus, full analysis was done on 291 figurines. Table 2.1 presents the overall chronological distribution of all of the 306 figurine remains from San Andrés, including the 15 limb fragments that had not been analyzed. Solid and Hollow Figurines The average lengths and widths of the fragments from hollow figurines were consistently 14

33 Table Complete Chronological Distribution of San Andrés Figurines Ceramic Phase Heads Torsos Limbs Animal s Unidentified Fragments Total Percentage Molina (1350 B.C B.C.) % Early Puente (950 B.C.-800 B.C.) % Late Puente (800 B.C B.C.) % (700 B.C.-550/500 B.C.) % (550/500 B.C.-350 B.C.) % Mixed Early Puente, Late Puente, Early Franco % Mixed Late Puente, Early Franco % Mixed Early Franco and other materials % Mixed Late Franco, Late Classic Mixed Late Franco, Late Postclassic % Mixed Late Franco, Late Classic, Postclassic % Total # % Total % 13% 14% 56% 3% 13% 100% 15

34 Table Solid vs. Hollow Figurines SOLID # % Average Length (mm) Average Width (mm) Heads % Torsos % Limbs % Animals 7 2.7% Unid. Frags % Total Solid % HOLLOW # % Average Length (mm) Average Width (mm) Heads % Torsos 1 0.3% Limbs 6 2.1% Animals 2 0.7% Unid. Frags % Total Hollow % 16

35 larger than those of the solid figurines (Table 2.2). Hollow figurines were most likely larger than the solid figurines. A hollow construction may have been a more efficient method of getting larger figurines through the firing process. The total number of hollow figurine fragments was substantially lower, however, than that of solid figurine fragments (41 hollow:246 solid). The lower frequency of hollow figurine fragments may indicate that these larger forms were more difficult to construct or that they were used for a different function, perhaps only for special occasions. Chronologically, hollow fragments are absent in the Molina and Early Puente phases, and they begin to appear in the Late Puente phase. Solid figurines, on the other hand, appear in all phases at San Andrés, from the Molina phase onwards. Firing Only 3 figurines were unfired, accounting for approximately 1 percent of the total San Andrés collection (Table 2.3). Two hundred eighty-eight figurines, or 99 percent, were fired. Of the fired figurines, 213 were incompletely fired. The incomplete firing of the figurines most likely indicates that they were fired for short periods and at temperatures that were low enough to prevent oxidation of carbon in the clays, thus resulting in the dark cores (Rice 1987:88). Twenty-three of the fired figurines were completely fired, showing no dark cores. Fifty-two of the fired figurines were reburned or showed possible signs of having been reburned. Figurine Size Three relative sizes were distinguished among the San Andrés figurines: large (5-12 cm in length, 3-12 cm in width), medium (3-6 cm in length, 2-5 cm in width), and small (2-4 cm in length, cm in width). This observation applies to identifiable figurine parts including heads, torsos, and limbs. The three sizes are relative, given the fact that they are based on fragmented and broken pieces of figurines (see Figurine Dimensions in Appendix C). In general, the large figurines are hollow fragments. In addition, large figurines have long, thin dimensions (Table 2.4) and are often incomplete figurine parts. For instance, a fragment of a nose and mouth that is approximately 4 cm long and 2 cm thick is relatively larger compared to a complete head with the same measurements. The average dimensions of the large figurine fragments for the San Andrés collection are similar to those of the hollow figurines previously discussed (see Table 2.2). Large figurines have a fine sand or volcanic ash temper. They occur from the Late Puente through the Late Franco phases. 17

36 Table Fired vs. Unfired Figurines Fired Unfired Total Completely Incompletely Reburned # Heads # Torsos # Limbs Animals # Unid.Frags Total # 23 (8%) 213 (73%) 52 (18%) 3 (1%)

37 Table Average Dimensions for Large Figurines Average Length (cm) Average Width (cm) Average Thickness (cm) Large Figurines # % Heads 12 5% Torsos Limbs 6 3% Total 19 8% Table Average Dimensions for Medium Figurines Average Length (cm) Average Width (cm) Average Thickness (cm) Medium Figurines # % Heads 26 11% Torsos 42 17% Limbs % Total % Table Average Dimensions of Small Figurines Average Length (cm) Average Width (cm) Average Thickness (cm) Small Figurines # % Heads 2 1% Torsos Limbs 5 2% Total 8 3% 19

38 Medium figurines comprise the majority of the total San Andrés collection (Table 2.5). Medium figurine fragments are solid, with mostly fine sand temper. They occur from the Molina phase onwards. Small-sized figurine fragments are complete heads, torsos, or limbs that are smaller in overall dimension than the more abundant group of medium figurine fragments (Table 2.6). The small-sized fragments are similar to the medium fragments in that they tend to have a fine sand temper. All of the small-sized fragments are solid. They occur from the Late Puente phase to the Early Franco phase. Figurine Color Figurines were made from the same color varieties of clays that were used to create the ceramic vessels at San Andrés. Using designations from the Munsell color system, I found that the figurine colors range from white, pinkish white, and pink, to different shades (or values and chroma) of gray, brown and red (Table 2.7 and Appendix D). The figurines from the Molina phase and the Early Puente phase show no signs of white colors. The use of clays yielding white colors for figurine-making appears to have begun in the Late Puente phase, with 3 white figurines, and increases dramatically in the Early Franco phase (see Figure 2.5), with 48 white figurines. Just as dramatic is the sudden decrease in white figurines in the Late Franco phase; only one hollow figurine fragment is white. The lightest color used during the Late Franco phase is a pinkish white (5YR 8/2 or 7.5YR 8/2). The change in use of white figurines might signify that the inhabitants of San Andrés may not have had access to sources of clays yielding white colors before the Late Puente phase and after the Early Franco phase. The increase in white figurines might also signify a stronger preference for this color over other colors during the Early Franco phase. The use of clays yielding pinkish white and gray colors shows a similar increase during the Early Franco phase; 36 figurines have a pinkish white color, and 50 figurines have shades of gray. The use of the color red steadily increases over time at San Andrés. Four red figurines were found in the Late Puente levels. In the succeeding Early Franco levels, 7 red figurines were found out of 172 figurines. As previously stated, the white colors were preferred during the Early Franco Phase. The Late Franco levels yielded 16 figurines made of red clays or clays that produce a red color. The increased use of the color red in figurines after the Early Franco Phase 20

39 Table Color Distribution of San Andrés Figurines White Pinkish White Pink Gray* Brown** Red*** # Heads # Torsos # Animals # Limbs # Unid. Frags Total # Total % 18% 17.00% 22% 22.00% 10.00% 10.00% *Gray includes: dark gray, gray, light gray, pinkish gray, and light brown gray. **Brown includes: light brown, pale brown, very pale brown, and pinkish brown. ***Red includes: reddish yellow, pinkish red yellow, and light reddish brown. 21

40 Figurine Color Distribution Early Puente Late Puente Early Franco Late Franco Ceramic Phase Figure San Andrés Chronological Distribution of Figurine Color White Pinkish W hite Pink Red Gray Brown Number of Figurines 22

41 may signify a greater availability or a stronger desire for this color. Within the whole collection, some of the figurine fragments have spots of mottled red or brownish red that are markedly darker than the usual red colors (Figure 2.6). This presence may indicate paint or pigmentation (hematite) application on the figurines. It might also be due to the natural presence of iron minerals in the clay or the result of being reburned. Pigment stones recovered from San Andrés support the idea of red pigment use. Typology The figurines that most closely resemble those from San Andrés are from La Venta and Chiapa de Corzo, Chiapas (see Chapters 5 and 6 for figurine similarities), which is a contemporaneous site in the Grijalva River Depression (see map in Figure 2.7). The San Andrés typology follows Drucker's (1952: , 139) analysis of the figurines from the site of La Venta. Drucker's study of 117 figurine heads from La Venta produced a taxonomy consisting of three basic groups, which he designated as "Styles", and subgroups designated as "Classes" having different "Types" within each class. The three styles are as follows: "Style I, in which the features are indicated by (multiple) punctate impressions and applique; Style II, in which narrow slits rather than punctations are used, again supplemented with applique elements, although somewhat less elaborately; and Style III, in which features are shown entirely or principally by means of modeled relief, or sculpturing." Chiapa de Corzo is a site that shows similarities with La Venta in its site layout (Clark, Hansen, and Pérez 2000). Thomas Lee (1969) analyzed 1,344 figurines from Chiapa de Corzo, applying style categories similar to those of Drucker. He found that four main styles were present in the assemblage. Lee's definitions (1969:7-10) are as follows: Style I: "includes all specimens in which facial features and head or hair decorations are indicated by punctation and appliqué"; Style II: "the same features and decoration are the result of incision or broad groove punctation and appliqué units"; Style III: "produced by modeled relief or sculpturing. Punctations, both round and slit, may also be present to emphasize facial detail." Lee's Style IV refers to mold-made figurines that do not apply to the present analysis. Based on Drucker and Lee's typologies, the San Andrés figurine typology entails three main styles. Style in this classification system refers to the method or technique in which facial features and characteristics are designated. Style I consists of decoration principally with 23

42 a b c Figure Examples of San Andrés figurines with red pigment: a) T-23, b) t-33, c) H-38 24

43 Figure Map of Chiapa de Corzo (adapted from Weaver 1993:41) 25

44 punctations and appliqué techniques. Style II consists of decoration with incisions and grooves, along with appliqué techniques. Style II is characterized b decoration using modeled relief and sculpturing techniques in addition to appliqué. Figurine heads, in general, display relatively more decoration than do other fragments, such as torsos and limbs. The three styles are difficult to apply to the less decorated body fragments, thus, typology applies only to figurine heads. The San Andrés typology differs from Drucker s and Lee s typologies in distinguishing between Style I and Style II. According to Drucker's and Lee's analyses, most of the San Andrés figurines would fall under Style I (punctations). Drucker labels those that have slits with some punctation as transition types from Style I-B-1/II, and he classifies them as Style I rather than Style II. His Style II is apparently similar to Weiant's (1952) "Morelos" types: the eyes and mouth are simple slits, the faces are long, and the head wears a tall turban or piled hair. This style is not common at San Andrés. Lee's Style II includes appliqué eyes of the "coffee-bean" types, with fillets and a groove in the middle, a style not present among the San Andrés collection. In San Andrés Style I, the figurine-makers used punctations to delineate features on the figurine heads. A pointed or blunt object with a round end was used to make the punctation marks. One head, Figurine H-05 (Figure 2.8a), possesses punctation marks as the predominant style to create the facial features. The eyes are slit with punctations to indicate pupils. The nose is indicated by two punctations, as well as the mouth. Only three heads possess punctation marks as the predominant style: H-05, H-23 (Figure 2.8b), and H-31 (Figure 2.8c). Figurine H- 31 is different, however, because it was punctated with a rectangular-shaped tool. The few figurines under Style I may be due to the sample size. Thirty figurines fall under Style II, which includes a combination of incised grooves or slit styles with appliqué. The eye treatments have two types under Style II: Type A is simple grooves or slits, Type B is slits with punctations. Twenty eight figurines are Type A: H-01, H- 02, H-06, H-08 to H-19, H-21, H-22, H-24 to H-26, H-28 to H-30, H-32, H-33, H-39, H-40, and T-07 (dwarf or infant figurine). Two figurines are Type B: H-03 and H-27. Figure 2.9 provides examples of San Andrés Type II figurines. Style III (Figure 2.10) involves a technique in which the clay is modeled or sculpted to form a facial feature, as opposed to using a tool. Five figurines display Style III: H-07, H-35, H- 26

45 a b c Figure Style I Figurines: a) H-05, b) H-23, c) H-31 a b c Figure Style II Figurines, Type A: a) H-15, b)h-26, Type B: c) H-03, d) H-27 d 27

46 a b c d Figure 2.10 Style III Figurines: a) H-07, b) H-35, c) H-38, d) H-36, e) H-37 e 28

47 Figurine Style Distribution Early Puente Late Puente Early Franco Late Franco Ceramic Phase Figure San Andrés Chronological Figurine Style Distribution Style I Style II Style III Number of Figurines 29

48 36, H-37, and H-38. All five display incising or punctation that brings more definition to the facial features, such as incisions outlining the eyes or punctations for the holes of the nostrils. Chronologically, Style I heads were found with Early Franco materials (Figure 2.11). Style II heads occur in Early Puente, Late Puente, and Early Franco contexts. Style III was found in Early Franco levels (H-35, H-36, H-37, and H-38), and in Late Franco contexts (H-07). Thus, Style III heads appear later than the other two types. Three head fragments were indeterminate as to style category because they were small parts of a head (H-04, H-34) or were eroded (H-20). Figurine Construction Holes present on two of the large, hollow heads (see Figures 2.10b and e) were presumably to facilitate the firing process. The holes probably help to distribute the heat evenly. Alternatively, they may have been used to attach additional ornamentation to the heads. Sixteen torsos (T-05, T-08 to T-10, T-13 to T-17, T-22, T-27, T-32, T-38, T-40, T-43, T- 44) have sockets into which separate heads were most likely placed. Most of the sockets are shallow, but a few (T-13, T-22, T-27) have fairly deep holes (Figure 2.12a). All three torsos with deep sockets are from the Early Franco phase. The remaining thirteen torsos have shallow sockets and are from the Early Puente, Late Puente, and Early Franco phases. Eight heads (H- 01, H-09, H-18, H-33, H-36, H-37, H-39, H-40) have tenons or stems (Figure 2.12b) that could have been inserted into deep torso sockets. They were found in levels with Early Franco and Late Franco materials. Fingerprints Four figurines fragments had fingerprints on their surfaces: H-13, T-35, L-134, and A-03. Negative imprints of the fingerprints were obtained by pressing "Sculpey" clay on the areas with the fingerprints (which had previously been cleaned and dusted with talcum powder). The clay was then baked in a toaster oven for approximately 5 minutes. Warren Barbour of the Department of Anthropology at the State University of New York-Buffalo analyzed the fingerprints from these four figurines, examining the epidermal ridges and differences in their breadths. His study concluded that all four fingerprints from the San Andrés figurines most likely belonged to females. Two of the fingerprints were on figurines from the Late Puente phase (H-13 and L-134). One fingerprint was on an animal figurine (A-03) from levels mixed 30

49 a b Figure 2.12 Examples of figurines with head sockets and tenons: a) T-27, b) H-18 31

50 with Early Puente, Late Puente, and Early Franco materials. The fourth fingerprint was on a torso fragment (T-35) from the Early Franco phase. Figurine Postures The San Andrés figurine torsos display two postures: standing and seated. Seventeen figurines appear standing: 14 are female (2 are pregnant), 2 are male, and one figurine has mixed gender characteristics. The torsos with standing positions show legs apart, but the manner in which they were manufactured does not suggest that they could actually stand upright. The complete torsos (top and bottom intact) with legs attached were either broken at the thigh area or were made with legs ending at the lower thigh (Figures 2.13). The leg fragments with feet attached indicate that the figurines were most likely too top-heavy to stand. The feet appear too small in proportion to the legs to which they were attached (Figures 2.14). Nevertheless, the posture is of a standing position, and the users of the figurines may have placed these figurines on their backs or leaning against something. The standing figurines appear in mixed levels with Early Puente, Late Puente, and Early Franco materials, in the Early Franco phase, and in the Late Franco phase. Six figurines were in the seated position: 3 are female, 1 is the dwarf or infant figurine, and the remaining 2 figures have indeterminable gender characteristics. One of the seated female figurines (T-22, Figure 2.15a) is an individual who appears elderly due to her drooping breasts. Another seated female (T-28, see Figure 3.4d) appears to have a unique breast ornamentation on the chest, which may indicate that this is an individual of high status. The third seated female figurine (T-20, Figure 2.14b) appears pregnant due to the full, round abdomen, and wears a band above the abdomen. The seated postures include the "cross-legged" style (Figure 2.13a), with lower legs bent inwards and crossed at the lower calf or ankle (T-22, possibly T-04). The dwarf or infant figurine appears to have the right leg folded in front and the left leg possibly bent (T-07, see Figure 4.3d). Another seated position (Figure 2.13b) is with legs straight out (Figurines T-20, T-23, possibly T-28). The seated figurines were found in the Early Franco and Late Franco phases. 32

51 a b c Figure 2.13 Examples of standing figurines: a) T-31, b) T-40, c) T-14, d) T-27 d 33

52 b a Figure Examples of disproportionate feet: a) L-37.), b) L-112, c) L-144 c a b Figure 2.15 Examples of seated figurines: h) T-22, i) T-20 34

53 Discussion The occurrence of figurines at San Andrés reached its peak during the Early Franco phase (ca /500 B.C.). The figurines were found as fragments, with heads and limbs disjointed from torsos. The majority of the figurines are solid, fired, and medium in size. They occur in various colors including white, grey, brown, and red. White or light colored figurines predominated during the Early Franco phase, while red figurines increased gradually over time and were the predominant color during the Late Franco phase. The majority of the figurine heads display a technique using a combination of incising slits or grooves with appliqué elements. Analysis of four fingerprints found on four separate figurine fragments indicates that they belonged to female makers, suggesting that figurine-making was done by women. The anthropomorphic figurines occurred in standing or seated positions. More standing figures occurred than seated ones. Three seated female figurines as well as the seated dwarf or infant figurine are unique in the collection. A figurine with full, drooping breasts (T-22) is the only one that portrays a more mature age. Another figure with ornamentation around the breasts (T-28) is the only one with this apparel. A pregnant figure with a breast band (T-20) is the only one of the three pregnant torsos that wear this apparel. The dwarf or infant figure (T-07) is the only one in the collection. These particular features set these figurines apart from each other and the rest of the collection. What all four of these figurines have in common is their seated posture. In contrast to the seated figures, all of the standing figures display relatively youthful features and wear no unique ornamentation on the chest. Nevertheless, because many of the standing figures wear high-status ornamentation (see Chapter 3 on Ornamentation), the seated figures alone cannot be indicative of material wealth. Instead, I propose that the seated posture indicates a position of authority, or it portrays figures having wisdom or knowledge that the standing figures do not possess. 35

54 CHAPTER 3 GENDER IN SAN ANDRÉS FIGURINES Gender Studies The majority of the San Andrés figurines are anthropomorphic representations. An examination of their gender provides a key to understanding their use. Being able to distinguish between the feminine and masculine figurine forms is necessary to determine what the figurines represent. Until recently, a systematic study of gender characteristics in Olmec imagery has been lacking in the literature. In 2000, Billie Follensbee published an extensive study of over 1,500 Formative period figurines from the Gulf Coast (San Lorenzo, La Venta, and Tres Zapotes sites), with a focus on gender distinction. Her work has provided distinct characteristics essential for determining gender in Olmec images. These characteristics can be applied to the San Andrés collection and demonstrate that the San Andrés figurines follow Middle Formative La Venta canons of gender depiction. Follensbee (2000: 36) categorized the figurine bodies into three general forms: relatively naturalistic forms, somewhat-abstracted forms, and grotesque forms. The relatively naturalistic forms exhibit the natural anatomical form of the human body, particularly of the female body. Most (over 92 percent) of the figurine bodies that she studied were of the naturalistic form. The somewhat abstracted forms display almost geometric shapes, such as torsos that are flat and rectangular, cylindrical, or pear-shaped (Follensbee 2000:40). Some of the bodies have what appears to be a third leg, giving the form a tripod structure. Less than four percent fall into the somewhat abstracted category. Most of these forms have no particular physical characteristics that distinguish their sex. Follensbee proposes that their apparent contrast to the female naturalistic forms suggests that they may be males, but further supporting data needs to found. 36

55 The grotesque forms (see Chapter 5 for further discussion) are "highly abstracted compact figures" (Follensbee 2000:41). They are smaller, sometimes with a hole in the back of the head or neck, and some may represent dwarfs or babies. These forms constitute less than four percent of the figurines studied. Female Figurine Torsos The San Andrés figurines show no genitalia, a general characteristic of Olmec figurines, though a few exceptions do occur, at La Venta for example (Follensbee 2000). Nonetheless, other indicators help to determine the gender of the figurines. Follensbee (2000:36-40) lists certain traits present on Olmec figurine torsos that indicate the female gender, and which are illustrated in the following San Andrés figurines. One trait, which is not unique to Olmec figurines but is seen on female figurines within and outside of Mesoamerica, is the pubic "Y" or triangle (Figure 3.1a). A second trait indicative of the female sex is the rounded breasts, often with a "W" shape under the breasts (Figure 3.1b). The breasts of Olmec figurines are generally small and are minimally pronounced. A third trait indicating female gender is the pinched waist that begins just below the breasts (Figure 3.1 b and c). A fourth trait is that the lower torso slopes out to flaring hips (Figure 3.1c). Another trait is that the arms and legs taper from top to bottom. Still another trait for distinguishing female gender is large, protruding abdomens, indicating the later stages of pregnancy (Figure 3.4a, b, c). A final trait of female figurines is well-defined buttocks with a prominent vertical cleft in the middle (Figure 3.1d). Based on these traits, 32 figurine torsos (89 percent) in the San Andrés collection have been identified as female. For those figurines that appear clothed, Follensbee notes certain garments or adornments associated with females. Examples of her illustrations are given in Figure 3.2. Garments include simple pubic flaps that cover the pubic area (Figures 3.2a-c, 3.3c, and 3.4a), short and low-slung skirts (Figures 3.2g-i, 3.6a), or loincloth aprons with thin belts that are also low-slung (Figures 3.3a, b), and occasionally beaded belts. At La Venta, a greenstone beaded belt was found in an offering from a columnar basalt enclosure under Mound A-2 (see Chapter 5). The San Andrés torsos wear pubic coverings and aprons (T-02, T-06, T-12, T-17, T-33, T-36, T-37), but none 37

56 a b c d Figure San Andrés female figurines: a) pubic triangle (T-26), b) minimally pronounced "W" breasts (T-41), c) pinched waist and flaring hips (T-14), d) defined buttocks with vertical cleft (T-31) 38

57 a b c d e f g h i Figure Examples of Follensbee's illustrations of La Venta female garments and ornaments: a) large rounded pubic apron, b) squared pubic apron, c) triangular pubic apron, d) breast band, e) circular pectoral, f) fillet necklace variation, g) short skirt, h) thigh-length skirt, i) thick belt (from Follensbee 2000: 492, 493, and 494) 39

58 a (front) b (back) c d e Figure Examples of San Andrés female torsos with clothing: a.)t-33 (front) with low slung apron, b.) T-33 (back), c.) T-17 with pubic flap, d.) T-37 with apron string, e.) T-06 with tie in back, f.) T-12 with knot detail at hip 40 f

59 a b c Figure Examples of San Andrés female torsos with clothing: a.) T- 02 with pubic flap, b.) T-11 with possible clothing on chest, c.) T-20 with band above abdomen, d.) T-28 with band below breasts d 41

60 appear to wear skirts or beaded belts. The attire at San Andrés may not have been as elaborate as that at La Venta. Torsos T-17 and T-33 (Figures 3.3a, b, c) display two examples of San Andrés textiles evident from the woven patterns on their aprons. Two torsos (T-20 and T-28) wear belts above their abdomens or below their breasts (Figures 3.4c, d), similar to what Follensbee illustrates as a breast band (Figure 3.2d). One torso (T-11) appears to have a small piece of cloth on top, possibly part of a cape (Figure 3.4b) or a fillet necklace variation such at that in Follensbee's illustration (Figure 3.2e). Female Figurine Heads Hairstyles, headdresses and ornaments of figurine heads vary throughout the Gulf Coast Olmec area, but patterns emerge (Follensbee 2000:47, 51). One of the more common hairstyles on female figurines is an inverted U shape that frames the face, with the top being squared or rounded (see Follensbee's illustrations, Figure 3.5, Figure 3.6a, b, c and Figure 3.9). With this hairstyle, vertical striations may be present to indicate hair, or the surface of the head may be smooth. Buns or crests, which may also be striated, sometimes adorn the U-shaped hairstyle. They are placed in the center or on one side, or two buns are placed on either side of the head. A ponytail sometimes hangs down at the back of the head (see Figure 3.6b). Another common female hairstyle that Follensbee (2000: 48, 52) describes is multiple buns and crests on what may be parted hair, or a possible partially shaven head. The buns may appear like long pieces extended downwards as opposed to circular globs on the head. A final common female hairstyle is hair wrapped around the head, appearing multi-layered and turbanlike. Given the fact that eighty-nine percent of the San Andrés torsos are identified as female, the majority of the figurine heads are probably female. Twenty-seven heads were mostly complete out of the 40 anthropomorphic head fragments in the collection. Based on Follensbee's (2000:47-53) gender descriptions, 18 out of the 27 complete San Andrés heads are female. From the heads that have been identified as either female or male, 86 percent are female. The 27 nearly complete heads also include heads that display both feminine and masculine 42

61 Figure Follensbee's illustrations of La Venta figurine hairstyles, headdresses, and ornaments: a) Squared, U-frame, striated, b) Rounded, U-frame, striated, c) Rounded, U-frame, d) Squared, U-frame, e) U-frame with central crest, f) U-frame with striated bun, g) Central and side buns, h) U-frame with striated central crest, i) U-frame with buns, j) Random hair buns, k) Crested helmet with squared frame, l) Earspools, m) Button ear ornaments with pendants, n) Button ear ornaments, o) Earspools with pendants (from Follensbee 2000: 499) 43

62 a b c Figure Examples of Female Figures in Mesoamerica: a) La Venta Stela 1 Female figure with helmet and low-slung skirt (from Drucker et al, 1959:Plate 56a), b) San Isidro Female Figurine with inverted U shape hairline and skirt with cloth piece over shoulder (from Lowe 1999:Figure 20), c) Female figurine with central part in hair (from Coe 1995: Cat. 34), d) Female figurine with ponytail (from Coe 1995: Cat. 238a and b) d 44

63 a b c d e f g h Figure 3.7 San Andrés female figurine heads: a) H-11 with hair bun, b) H-19 with striated hair, c) H-27 with ponytails in back of head, d) H-33 with ponytail or tassel in back, e) H-39 with turban wrap and chin strap, f) H-18 with two buns or ornamentation, g) H-36 with center part or tonsure, h) H-37 with helmet 45

64 characteristics, which have been termed as "mixed gender" in this analysis, as well as heads who display no gender characteristics and have thus been rendered indeterminable. Taking into account these two additional categories for figurine heads, the percentage of female heads changes to 67 percent, with 11 percent having mixed gender characteristics, and 7 percent being indeterminable. San Andrés female hairstyles (Figure 3.7) include hair buns on the top or sides of the head, the inverted U shape hairstyle, ponytails or tassels on the back of the head, and hair or turbans wrapped around the head. Ornamentation (see discussion below) includes shells or other ornaments on the forehead or on top of the head (or they may be hair buns), and earspools, sometimes with pendant pieces. Trends in San Andrés hairstyles over time are difficult to determine due to the small sample of figurine heads from the Early Puente and Late Puente phases. Nonetheless, we see that San Andrés females wore their hair in buns on top or to the sides of their heads (Figure 3.7a and f) in the Late Puente phase (possibly earlier) and onwards. They also wore turbans and possibly headbands (Figures 3.8i,e respectively) in the Late Puente phase and in the later phases. During the Early Franco phase, females wore their hair over their forehead in an inverted U shape (Figure 3.7b, g, h), similar to that worn on the La Venta figurine in Figure 3.9. Figurine H-36 (Figure 3.7g) is unique in that it appears to have the inverted U shape hair with a part in the middle or a shaven strip. Females also wore turbans or hair dressed in elaborate ways, such as wrapping part of it under the chin (Figure 3.7e). Ponytails (Figures 3.7c, d) are apparent during and after the Early Franco phase although females may have worn them in earlier times. Ornamentation Figurine ornamentation consists of necklaces, earspools (some of which have pendant pieces), and head ornaments (possibly shells). Seventeen San Andrés torsos wear a round pendant on the chest that may represent a mirror (Figure 3.8). A clear example of a figurine with a hematite mirror on the chest and earspools is the female jade figurine from La Venta, Mound A-2 (Figure. 3.9). Based on this example, I suggest that the San Andrés figurines are probably wearing mirrors. Of the seventeen torsos with mirrors, fifteen are females, one is male, and one is undetermined. Mirror pectorals were high status items of adornment that signified power and that were 46

65 a b c Figure Examples of San Andrés figurine torsos with pendants: a) T-05, b) T-08, c) T-40, d) T-22, e) H-15 d 47

66 Figure La Venta greenstone female figurine with red pigment and hematite mirror pendant from Mound A-2 (from Benson and de la Fuente 1996:16, Photo by Michel Zabé) 48

67 a b c d e f Figure Examples of San Andrés figurine heads with earspools and head ornaments: a) H-26, b) H-27, c) H-15, d) H-23, e) H-12, f) H-27 49

68 obtained through trade. Other examples of mirrors worn as pectorals include a Late Formative ceramic figurine from the burial site of Tlatilco, which had a hematite mirror on the chest, and a Late Formative high-status burial at Chalcatzingo, with a mirror pendant near the chest of the individual (Carlson 1981, Heizer and Gullberg 1981, Tolstoy 1989). Eight San Andrés figurines wear possible earspools (Figure 3.10). Some are simple round ornaments, such as that worn on H-39 (see Figure 3.7e). Some may have pendant pieces, as seen on H-26 or H-27 (Figures 3.10a,b). Figurine H-15 (Figure 3.10c), from the Late Puente phase, may have a large earspool or a bun on the side of the head. Figurine T-07, a dwarf or infant figurine from the Late Puente phase, also wears a similar object on the side of the head (see Figure 4.3d). Only two figurine heads wear ornaments on the head (Figures 3.10d,e); one is from the Late Puente phase and the other is from the Early Franco phase. The ornaments, worn on the forehead, may be Spondylus or oyster shells. An Early Franco figurine head, H-27, (Figure 3.10f) wears either a shell or a bun on top of the head. The striations are similar to those on Figurines H-12 and H-23, but they may also represent hair striations. San Andrés figurines wearing the ornamentation discussed above might be representative of individuals of high rank or the figurines themselves may represent elite status. Since the figurine torsos are either standing or seated, the seated postures could refer to persons of a more mature social or chronological age. Standing postures may refer to younger persons. They appear to be more abstract representations of young women of child-bearing age. The mirror pendants and other ornamentation, as well as the torso postures, may signify different social roles present at San Andrés. Male Figurine Torsos Male figurine torsos are more geometric and ambiguous compared to the naturalistic female figurines (Follensbee 2000:40, 52). The somewhat abstracted figurines are probably males because their shapes contrast the female figures. The abstracted figures are cylindrical, rectangular, or pear-shaped. Another characteristic of male figurines is that they almost always wear clothing. The male-gendered garments worn on the these geometric forms further support 50

69 the idea that they are males (see Figure 3.11). Male garments (Figure 3.12) may consist of wide belts worn high on the waist (sometimes many-layered), loincloths that wrap under the crotch, vest-like shirts or capes, and hipcloths. Ornaments on males include round pectorals and round earspools. Based on these characteristics, four figurines in the San Andrés collection are males: T-13, T-18, T-27, and T-30 (Figure 3.13). All four torsos are from the Early Franco phase. Figurine torso T-13 (Figure 3.13a) is probably male because of the absence of breasts, as well as the relatively straight waistline, as opposed to a pinched or a constricted waist attributed to female torsos. Another torso, T-27, (Figure 3.13c) wears male garments that include a loincloth with a thick belt having hip cloths hanging down from it. The belt is worn high around the abdominal area, unlike the low-slung aprons that female figures wear. Figurine T-18 (Figure 3.13d) is considered male mainly due to the geometric shape of the body. It has a flat and rectangular body, and a smooth chest with no undulations. The torso is wearing a pubic covering and a dark area is present below the covering, possibly where male genitalia had once been present. A horizontal line below the navel is incised, perhaps to indicate a string attached to the pubic covering. The pubic covering is a rare male garment because male Olmec figures usually wear more clothing than this, such as loincloths and belts high on the waist. One figurine torso, T-30 (Figure 3.13b), is unique in having clothing on the upper body. It wears a shirt or small cape with vertical striations on the upper arm that may indicate a fringe detail. Two vertical incisions on the chest show the garment may have been worn open at the chest. A fragment of a belt with a knot or round ornament in the center is also present around the abdominal area. This torso is considered male due to the absence of undulations on the chest, and what appears to be a straight waistline. Figure 3.11b is another example of a male wearing a cape with fringe. Of the torsos whose gender could be determined as female or male, 89 percent were female and 11 percent were male. In addition to the female and male torsos, three torsos had mixed gender characteristics and five had indeterminable gender characteristics. Given these two additional categories, the percentages change to 73 percent being female torsos, 9 percent are male, 7 percent have mixed gender characteristics, and 11 percent are indeterminable. 51

70 Figure Examples of male-gendered clothing in Mesoamerica: a) Line drawing of male figure on La Venta Monument 13 (from Drucker 1952:203), b) Line drawing of masked male figure incised on a jadeite celt (from Benson and de la Fuente 1996:273) 52

71 Figure Follensbee's illustrations of La Venta male figurine garments: a) Belt and loincloth, b) Belt, skirt, and loincloth, c) Belt and hipcloth with pendant flaps, d) Belt and loincloth with elaborate decoration, e) Wide belt with additional thin belts, f) Wide belt, short skirt wrapped with loincloth, necklace, g) Vest and neck fillet (from Follensbee 2000: 502) 53

72 a b c Figure 3.13 San Andrés male figurine torsos: a) T-13, b) T-30, c) T-27, d) T-18 d Male Figurine Heads 54

73 The characteristics of male figurine heads are more ambiguous than those of female heads. Female figurine heads have decorations such as hair buns, ponytails, head ornaments, and turbans. Male heads may wear helmets that outline the face with a square shape and are either crested, have a cone shape on top, or have ornamentation on it (Follensbee 2000:52) (see Figure 3.5k). Some of the heads have facial hair. Tonsured or shaven heads may also be indicative of male gender (Figure 3.14a). Follensbee has found no evidence of bald ceramic figurine heads being male, due to the lack of facial hair on the face, nor have the complete male figurines had bald heads. Nonetheless, a Late Formative basalt monument from Veracruz (see Figure 3.15), known as "The Wrestler" (Benson 1996), clearly wears the male-gendered belt and loincloth, has facial hair, and is bald. Thus, I propose that bald heads may indicate the male gender but are not exclusively a male trait. Based on these characteristics, three male heads are present in the San Andrés collection: H-24, H-25, and H-35 (Figure 3.14). All of the male heads are from the Early Franco phase. Figurine H-35 (Figure 3.14a) is a top fragment of a head that is clearly bald. This particular head resembles "The Wrestler" mentioned above (see Figure 3.15) and is the basis for identifying H- 35 as male. Blomster's (2002) study of Olmec hollow baby figurines states that some baby figurines may be bald. Although the San Andrés head is bald and hollow, many characteristics rule out the possibility that it is a hollow baby figurine. One is that head H-35 is from the Middle Formative period; Blomster (2002:171, 172, 184) notes that hollow baby figurines are restricted to the later Early Formative period referred to as the San Lorenzo Horizon (Diehl and Coe 1995:23-24). Figurine H-35 is made of a reddish clay with a fine sand temper and is not burnished; hollow baby figurines are made with a white or cream slip and burnished to achieve a smooth, polished appearance. Figurine H-35 has almond-shaped eyes and a relatively narrow nose; Olmec hollow baby figurines have trough or L-shaped eyes, and broad, short noses. Despite the fact that H-35 is incomplete, it does not appear to have fat, puffy cheeks, which is another trait present on hollow baby figurines. The relatively realistic details of the ears is the only trait that H-35 shares with Olmec hollow baby figurines. Holes present on the front and 55

74 a b Figure 3.14 San Andrés male figurine heads: a) H-35, b) H-24, c) H-25 c 56

75 Figure Seated bald male figure with mustache and beard, Antonio Plaza Monument 1, Veracruz. Dimensions: 66cm (length) x 40cm (width) (from Benson and de la Fuente 1996:174, Photo by Michel Zabé) 57

76 back of H-35 may have been to facilitate firing or to attach a cloth headdress similar to those on H-24 and H-25. A cloth headdress may also have been placed on the basalt monument from Veracruz, and holes present on the ears suggest that earspools may have been placed in them. San Andrés Figurines H-24 and H-25 (Figure 3.14b and c respectively) were found together. Both heads appear to have facial hair above the lip and on the chin as evidenced by raised areas on the chins and necks, which suggest that they are male. Their headdresses appear elaborate with crests on the top, or may be cloth with the ends folder over on top. Figurine H-25 has two circular shapes on either side of the top of the head, which could be ornaments. They both appear to wear earspools. Summary A study of gender distinctions in the San Andrés figurines, and in anthropomorphic figurines in general, is integral to understanding their use. By determining the gender of the figurines, we become aware of how the people at San Andrés distinguished the sexes in their imagery. Billie Follensbee's (2000) study of gender in Olmec imagery has provided researchers with a tool to ascertain the gender of anthropomorphic figures in a systematic manner. It is relevant to the San Andrés study because it helps to establish that the people at San Andrés practiced the same standardization of canons within the La Venta polity. Follensbee classified the Olmec figurine bodies into three general categories: relatively naturalistic, somewhat abstracted, and grotesque figurines. The majority of the Gulf Coast Olmec figurines are of the naturalistic type and were images of women. The female forms display pinched waists, flaring hips, arms and legs that tapered from top to bottom, and a pubic Y or triangle. Breasts are minimally indicated and prominent breasts are uncommon. Buttocks may be shapely with pronounced cleavage. Some female forms display prominent bellies and breasts to depict women in the later stages of pregnancy. The garments on female figurines include low-slung garments below the navel, short capes or vests, and breast bands. Ornaments include circular pendants that most likely represent mirrors, and fillet or beaded necklaces. 58

77 Female heads may have an inverted U-shaped hairstyle, buns or crests positioned in the center or off to the sides of the head, sectioned pieces of hair with the other areas of the head appearing shaved, and hair or cloth wrapped around the head. Ponytails are sometimes present on the back of the head. Round earspools or ornaments may be present on the ears, sometimes with pendant pieces. Follensbee describes the somewhat abstracted figures as having geometric shapes such as rectangular, cylindrical or pear-shaped bodies, cylindrical limbs, and sometimes tripod legs. No specific features are present that determine the sex of these forms. Because they strongly contrast with the female naturalistic forms, they may be male figures. The garments worn on the abstracted forms include thick belts situated on or above the natural waist, and often worn with loincloths that go underneath the crotch, hipcloths, short skirts worn underneath the loincloths, and capes or vests. A round pendant, sometimes large, may be present on the chest. Male heads may wear headdresses that outline the face in a square shape. The headdresses often have projecting geometric forms such as square or cone shapes, crests on the top, or cloth folded over on top. Round earspools may be present on these heads. Often the heads wearing the headdresses have facial hair, indicating that they are male figures. The analysis of gender in the San Andrés figurine torsos and heads indicates that more female figurines were made than male figurines. The torsos were comprised of 32 females, 4 males, 2 with mixed gender characteristics, 5 of indeterminable gender, and 1 dwarf or infant with female head decoration. Of the torsos whose gender could be determined as female or male, 89 percent were female and 11 percent were male. Twenty-seven heads were complete, or mostly complete, out of the 40 head fragments in the collection. The remaining 13 head fragments were small fragments of heads whose gender could not be determined. Of the 27 mostly complete heads, 18 were identified as female, 3 were considered males (one of which was an incomplete fragment of the upper part of the head - see Figurine H-35 in Figure 3.13a), 4 had mixed gender characteristics, and 2 were indeterminable. Of the heads whose gender could be ascribed as female or male, 86 percent were female and 14 percent were male. Overall, the majority of the San Andrés figurines are female. 59

78 CHAPTER 4 FIGURINE CONTEXT AT SAN ANDRÉS The stratigraphic levels and special features in which the San Andrés figurines were found provide information about associated items and how they were situated. These contextual data are essential for determining figurine use because they offer clues about human behavior at San Andrés. Many, though not all, figurines were found associated with food service pottery and other materials suggestive of feasting and ritual activities at San Andrés. Feasts can be defined as "any sharing between two or more people of special foods in a meal for a special purpose or occasion" (Hayden 2001:28). A feast is "a food event which is somehow commemorative or celebratory of perhaps a historical or religious occasion...having some intrinsic social value which transcends the nutritive function of eating" (Powers and Powers 1984:83). They are "a form of public ritual activity centered around the communal consumption of food and drink" (Dietler 2001: 67). In other words, feasts involve a gathering of at least two people for the consumption of food and drink for a special occasion. Feasts differ from daily meals in that feasts entail a ritual component that helps to create, define, and transform structures of power (Dietler 2001: 70). Feasts function as an arena to create and maintain social ties with other people within and outside of one's community. A feast "facilitates or heightens the importance of social interaction in pivotal life-history events, such as births, weddings, initiations, funerals, and political succession" (Lau 2002: 280). The practical benefits of feasting involve having access to, or power over, labor, goods, favors, debts, and relationships between groups (Hayden 2001:29-30). Feasts can be distinguished from daily meals by the use of food or drink not used for everyday consumption, and their concentration in elite residence areas or ceremonial structures 60

79 (Junker 2001:258, Dietler 2001:69, Crabtree 1990, J. Fox 1996, Kim 1994, Marcus and Flannery 1996: , Pohl 1994, Welch and Scarry 1995). Furthermore, feasts usually involve the use of special serving vessels, whether they be of unusual sizes or elaborately detailed (Junker 2001, Dietler 2001, Blitz 1993, Clark and Blake 1994; Welch and Scarry 1995). Hayden (2001: 40-41) lists various markers in the archaeological record that indicate feasting behavior (see Figure 4.1). At San Andrés, diverse forms including vessels specially prepared to hold liquids, miniature vessels, shell cups, and oversized platters made this site distinct from contemporaneous, non-elite sites (von Nagy, et al. 2001), and these vessels provide evidence of feasting. Other materials found in association with the special service forms include numerous animal bone remains and elite status items such as obsidian, greenstone, and a roller stamp with glyphs. Some of these materials were disposed of in a low-lying, boggy area at San Andrés that was not used before or after the Early Franco phase. All of these features are signatures of feasting, and the association of figurines with such features establishes that figurines were used during feasting events. Special Features and Stratigraphic Levels At San Andrés, there are several stratigraphic levels and features that represent specific activities including feasting and other ritual events. The description of these levels and features provides contextual information for the San Andrés figurines, which is essential for interpreting their possible functions. Unit 1, Feature 4 The upper levels of Unit 1 (Figure 4.2) contained Middle Formative period packed earth floors with numerous pits (Features 1-18). Feature 4 was a sherd-lined pit that showed evidence of a special activity. It contained a high concentration of Early Franco pottery and daub. Feature 4a, located in the northern portion of Feature 4, contained dense pottery refuse. According to von Nagy (1999), over 98 percent of the pottery sherds were reburned. The pottery assemblage from this feature contained vessels and dishes that were not typical of daily use but were forms that suggest feasting activities, such as large tecomate forms and deep bowls. 61

80 Food Preparation vessels Serving vessels Food-preparation facilities Special food-disposal features Feasting facilities Special display facilities, scaffolds, poles, or other features Special locations Associated prestige items Ritualized items of etiquette Paraphernalia for public rituals Existence of aggrandizers Recordkeeping devices Pictorial and written records of feasts Food-storage facilities Resource characteristics Rare or labor-intensive plant or animal species (especially condiments, spices, and domestic animals) Special "recreational" foods (e.g., tobacco, opium, cannabis, and alcohol) Quantity of food items Evidence of waste of food items (e.g., deposition of articulated joints, unprocessed bone) Unusual types (e.g., for beer-making, chili-grinding, perhaps initial appearance of cooking pots) Unusual large sizes Unusual numbers Unusual quality or materials (e.g., first occurrence of pottery or highly decorated or specially finished pottery, large gourds, stone bowls) Unusual size of serving vessels Unusual numbers of serving vessels Unusual size of facilities (e.g., large roasting pits or hearths) Unusual number of facilities (e.g., several hearth in a row) Unusual location or construction of facilities Bone dumps Special refuse fires containing feasting items Feasting middens Special structures (temporary vs. permanent) for highest-ranking guests and hosts, or for large numbers of people Mortuary or remote locations that are clearly not habitation sites (e.g., in front of Megalithic tombs, at henge monuments, inside caves) Loci associated with nuclear households, residential corporate households, large feasting middens or central community spaces Presence or absence, and relative abundance of prestige items typically used in different types of feasts (e.g., ritual display items, feathers, shell jewelry) The destruction of wealth or prestige items (via intentional breakage or burial) Smoking or other narcotic paraphernalia Ritualized vessels for consumption of alcohol, chocolate, kava, or other prestige drinks Dance masks or costume elements Wealthy burials; social or site hierarchies; large residences with high storage per capita The presence or absence and frequency of tally sticks, counting tokens, or symbolic pictograms Stables, storage pits, granaries Abundance, intensified exploitation, invulnerability to overexploitation Figure Markers for Feasting in the Archaeological Record (from Hayden 2001: Table 2.1) 62

81 The figurines found in association with the Early Franco pottery from Feature 4 of Unit 1 consisted of three solid limb fragments (L-26, L-27, and L-32) of a fine sand temper and six undetermined fragments (U-11, U-12, U-13, U-14, U-15, U-32) of a fine volcanic ash temper that were part of hollow figurines. The solid limb fragments were medium-sized and reddish compared to the hollow fragments, which were relatively large and white or light gray in color. All of the fragments were incompletely fired. Feature 4 also yielded a mano fragment made of andesite (Du Vernay 2002), obsidian, bone, greenstone, and charcoal, in addition to the ceramic vessels and figurine fragments. Unit 1 North, Feature 9 Feature 9 of Unit 1 is the best representation of the Late Puente phase. Feature 9 was a well-defined trash pit (von Nagy 1999) situated below Feature 4 that also contained evidence suggestive of feasting activity. The trash pit had pottery refuse and food remains of animal bones. The pottery included fragmentary to complete vessels, including cooking and storage jars, bowls and tecomates, and service dishes with sizes ranging from small dishes to large platters. Such platters would have been appropriate for serving a large group of people. The animal bone was heavily calcined, though only a small percentage of the sherds were burned. A charcoal sample (Unit Beta ) taken from Level 3 of Feature 9 yielded dates within the Late Puente phase (ca B.C.). A number of figurine fragments (Figure 4.3) were associated with the pottery in Feature 9. These included three heads (H-11, H-12, H-13), a dwarf figurine (T-07), a possible ceramic duck bill (A-04), seven limb fragments (L-045 to L-048, L-50 to L-52), and an undetermined hollow fragment (U-18). Along with the ceramic sherds and figurine fragments were a mano fragment and a manuport of andesite (Du Vernay 2002), as well as charcoal, obsidian blades, hematite, jadeite, and bone. I propose that some figurine heads in the San Andrés collection may depict injuries and illness. Head H-11 (Figure 4.3a) from Feature 9, for example, has distinctive features, including a lump that protrudes from the forehead and large brows, that give it an appearance of injury. Both heads H-11 and H-12 (Figure 4.3b) have uncommon eye treatments involving an almondshaped incision that makes the eyes appear closed or swollen. The unfired head, H-13 (Figure 4.3c), is unique, with facial characteristics not found anywhere else. This head appears sick or 63

82 Figure San Andrés Unit 1, Features 1-18 (diagram by C. von Nagy) 64

83 a b c d e Figure San Andrés figurines from Unit 1 North, Feature 9: a) H-11, b) H-12, c) H-13, d) T-07 (front and back), e) A-04 65

84 injured, with one eye slit at an angle and the other eye discernible, a flattened nose, large swollen lips, and the head having small lumps around it. Figurine heads H-11 and H-12 appear to be female figures. Figurine H-11 displays a striated bun on the right side of the head, as well as a rounded, inverted U shape hairline (the left side is broken off). Figurine H-12 also has a rounded, inverted U shape hairline, but with a round ornament with striations on the forehead. The ornament may actually be a bun because of the striations. This head also has a downturned mouth, indicative of Olmec imagery. Figurine T-07 (Figure 4.3d) is the only complete figurine in the entire San Andrés collection. It appears infant-like due to its overall small size, but the disproportionately large head appears adult. Thus, it may be a dwarf with bent leg or crouched stance, a characteristic associated with Olmec dwarf figurines (Tate 1995:60-62). In Formative period mythology, dwarfs served as supporters of rulers or lords and were guardians to the underworld (Ortiz and Rodriguez 2000:86, Coe et al. 1995:62 and 216). They have also been associated with rain and sacrifice (Joralemon 1971:90). They may have been seen as intercessors between the natural and supernatural realms. The seated position of the dwarf makes it unusual, however, with the right leg folded in front and the left leg bent. This position may indicate elite status (Coe et al. 1995:290). The head of this figure resembles a female head (H-15, see Figure 4.4) in the collection. Both heads have a large earspool or bun on one side of their heads (T-07 on the left side, H-15 on the right side) and similar facial features. The other unusual piece from Unit 1-Feature 9 is the duck beak, A-04 (Figure 4.3e). It appears to have been part of a large duck figurine or a ceramic mask. Duck effigies occur frequently during the Formative period. Being creatures of the air, land and water, ducks were connected to both the natural and supernatural worlds (Coe et al. 1995:182). Masks have been considered as apparel worn by shamans or ritual specialists (Reilly 1995, Lesure 1997: ). Further discussion is provided in Chapter 5. These figurines and the other objects associated with the pottery suggest that a feasting activity occurred involving a healing ceremony, and possibly a specialist knowledgeable in curing practices. Unit 3 Unit 3 yielded midden materials spanning the Early Puente through the Late Franco phases. The midden included numerous bone fragments, some of which were burned, and many 66

85 a Figure San Andrés figurines from Unit 3, Level 11: a) H-15, b) A-05 b 67

86 of which were turtle bones. Manuports, metate and hammerstone fragments (Du Vernay 2002), many ceramic sherds, green obsidian, hematite, a jade pendant, and an obsidian blade fragment also emerged from this unit. In particular, Level 11 (Figure 4.4) contained a solid figurine head (H-15), a bird ocarina (A-05), and two limb fragments (L-062 and L-063) associated with large Late Puente vessel fragments and green Pachuca obsidian. The figurine head (H-18) may be female due to the striated hair and a headband framing the face in an inverted U shape. The head wears a large earspool, or possibly a bun, on the right side. Its mouth appears open, perhaps to indicate this figure is speaking or singing. The animal figurine (A-05) is an ocarina (musical instrument) in the shape of bird. Birds were considered important creatures in Mesoamerica because of their ability to occupy the realms of sky, land, and water (see Chapter 5). The bird ocarina may have been used to carry messages to the deities and may have a correlation with the singing or speaking figurine head associated with it. Unit 8, Level 5 Unit 8-Level 5 was described as a brown midden which yielded 3 figurine heads (H-24, H-25, H-26), 2 torsos (T-17, T-18), and 6 limb fragments (L-115 to L-120) (see Figure 4.5). In addition to the figurines, ceramic vessel fragments, obsidian, bone, mano and metate fragments (Du Vernay 2002), a hammerstone fragment, and a manuport were found in this level. All three of the figurine heads are stylistically similar to each other and probably were made by the same person. Figurines H-24 and H-25 appear so similar to each other that they may be representative of the same person, perhaps a stock character, or of twins. These two heads are probably males due to the presence of what appears to be facial hair. Their headdresses show elaborate decoration of cloth folded over on top, with one head having two circular ornaments on either side. Both heads wear round earspools. The third figurine head, H-26, is larger than the other two heads. It has an inverted U-shaped hairline with a crest or bun on top (the right side is broken off), an indication that this is a female figure. It also wears ear ornamentation with pendant pieces. The torsos from Unit 8-Level 5 consist of one female (T-17) and one male (T-18). The male is nude except for a small frontal covering, which is rare because male figurines are almost always wearing clothing such as large belts and loincloths. The female is also nude except for a small pubic covering. 68

87 a b c d Figure Figurines from Unit 8-Level 5: a) H-24, H-25, and H-26 respectively, b) Profile of H-24, H-25, and H-26, c) T- 18 and T-17 respectively, d) Back view of T-18 and T-17 69

88 70 Figure San Andrés stratigraphic profile of Units 7 and 8 (from Lentz et al. 2001: Figure 1)

89 Units 7 and 8, Feasting Midden A stratigraphic level (approximately cmbd) present in Units 7 and 8, designated Black Gray Silty Clay or "BGS clay", contained abundant Early Franco cultural material (Figure 4.6, see Middle Formative strata). Large vessel fragments and nearly complete vessels were present including serving dishes, jars, bowls, vases and urns. Von Nagy interpreted ceramic remains from this midden as mostly untrampled trash. Lithic artifacts from this midden include polishing and pecking stones, manuports, mano and metate fragments, hammerstone fragments, and celt fragments (Du Vernay 2002). In addition to the vessels and lithic objects, fragments of small jade plaques with glyphs (Figure 4.7a), a roller stamp with glyphs (Figure 4.7b) possibly used for decorating the body or cloth, and a large, hollow figurine head (H-36, Figure 4.7c) were associated with animal bones. The roller stamp and jade plaque provide evidence of what may be the earliest writing in Mesoamerica (Pohl et al. 2002). The large figurine head is distinguished from other figurine fragments in the midden because of its large size and its context. Its open mouth may indicate this individual is speaking or singing. Based on Follensbee's study on Olmec gender characteristics, Figurine head H-36 may be female due to the inverted U-shaped hairline. The head has a part in the middle, or what may be a shaven strip. A hole is present on the top of the head, which may have facilitated firing. Alternatively, the hole may have been used to attach non-ceramic garments, in which case the head may have worn an elaborate male headdress. Regardless of gender, this particular head is a fine example of the indigenous facial features local to this area. Two figurines in the Early Franco deposit show features connected to childbirth. A pregnant torso (T-11, Figure 4.8a) was found in the northwest corner of Unit 7 (Feature 3-4). It was uncovered with broken Early Franco pottery sherds laying over it. The sherds did not appear to have been burned, but charcoal was found with the remains. Approximately cm (Unit 7-Level 10) below this deposit, also in the northwest quadrant, was a female figurine torso (T-31, Figure 4.8b). An incised vertical line runs along the middle of the abdomen and through the navel, representing the linea gris or gray line (Cyphers Guillén, 1993:213), usually an indication of a woman having given birth. During pregnancy, the line becomes darker due to hormonal changes in the body (called the linea nigra, Eisenberg et al. 1991:178). The color of 71

90 a b Figure San Andrés Materials from Units 7 and 8 Feasting Midden: a) greenstone plaque (Photo by Christopher von Nagy), b) roller stamp (Photo by Christopher von Nagy), c) hollow figurine head from Unit 7, Level 9 (H-36: 12.7 cm x 10 cm x 7.6 cm ) c 72

91 a b Figure San Andrés figurines from Unit 7, BGS clay levels: a) T-11, b) T-31 73

92 a b c d e Figure San Andrés figurines from Unit 8, Feature 1-7: a) L-131, b) L-132, c) T-27, d) T-26, e) T-28 74

93 the line usually fades to a light gray after pregnancy. Thus, figurine T-31 probably represents a woman who has given birth. A concentration of charcoal, one seed, and a ceramic sherd were also found near this figurine. Unit 8-Level 7-Feature 1 (Figure 4.9) contained a hand fragment (L-132), a foot (L-131), one seated female figure wearing a round pendant on her chest (T-28), one lower torso of a standing female (T-26), and one standing male figure (T-27) (see Chapter 5 for further discussion). Other materials found in this feature were red clay, obsidian, and bone. Ceramic vessels included jars, urns, dishes, deep bowls, and imported cooking vessels that were probably two times as large as the local standard cooking jars (von Nagy 1999:55). Groundstone artifacts included a polishing stone, a manuport, and mano and metate fragments (Du Vernay 2002). Nearby materials found in Unit 8-Level 7 ( cmbd) consisted of manuports, obsidian, seeds and botanical matter, a bone awl, a small tooth and other bone remains. Eighteen figurine fragments were also found in Unit 8-Level 7. The fragments included 4 torsos (T-22 to T-25), 1 animal (A-09), 9 limbs (L-122 to L-130, and 4 unidentifiable fragments (U-23 to U-26). Ceramic vessels included cooking jars, serving dishes and bowls, urns and miniature urns that matched the size of the small figurines (von Nagy 1999:55). One torso (T-22) represents a seated female (Figure 4.10). This particular torso is different from the other torsos in the collection because of the pendulous breasts and the way in which the legs are crossed at the ankles. A round pendant is present on the chest. This individual may represent an older, mature female due to the heavy breasts and a concavity on the lower abdomen, which may indicate that she is past the child-bearing years. Another view is that this female has just given birth, due to what may be full, lactating, breasts, and the concavity in the lower abdomen. Figurine T-23 is a partial seated torso with legs splayed out. The upper part of the body is not present and its gender is indeterminable. It is one of the larger and lighter-colored (ashtempered), solid figurines in the collection. Another torso, figurine T-24 (not pictured), is a partial fragment of the upper torso with only the chest area present. Subtle breasts are present, indicating the female gender. The bottom half of a round pendant is present. The last torso, figurine T-25 (not pictured), has an unusual tubular shape, having no arms or legs attached. The sole animal figurine (A-09) resembles a jaguar, which was an important animal in Mesoamerica, 75

94 a b c d Figure Figurines from Unit 8, Level 7: a) T-22, b) T-23, c) L-123 and L-125, d) A-09 76

95 considered to have supernatural powers (see Chapter 5). Summary The special features at San Andrés show that figurines are closely associated with deposits that may represent feasting and ritual activities in domestic areas. Defining characteristics of feasts in the archaeological record include the presence of concentrations of special food remains, the manufacture of special vessels, the use of elite status items and ritual paraphernalia, and feasting middens. The special deposits at San Andrés match such signatures for feasting activities. The deposits include large capacity preparation and service vessels, beverage preparation and service vessels, and miniature vessels scaled to match the figurines. Special exotic materials, such as greenstone, obsidian, and hematite, were also found in these deposits. These items, along with the figurines, suggest behavior that requires preparation of materials not used for everyday purposes, but for ritual purposes. Resources such as greenstone and hematite were materials that would have been acquired from outside the local area through exchange networks. These exotic materials may have reached San Andrés through gift-giving associated with feasting. The manufacture of figurines is of special interest because the forms they represent may provide clues to the nature of the rituals that took place. The figurines found in association with these special deposits represent individuals with an injury or illness, females in different reproductive stages, individuals wearing elite garments or adornments, and animals related to the supernatural realm. In general, the San Andrés figurines, the majority of which are females, are found in household contexts suggesting feasting and ritual activities. 77

96 CHAPTER 5 OLMEC IMAGERY AND LA VENTA FIGURINES Introduction La Venta figurines most closely resemble the San Andrés figurines, as one might expect. In some instances, the similarities are so close that one might think that a single figurine maker created figurines at both sites. The following discussion begins with ideas about Olmec cosmology and the role of La Venta as a major Middle Formative center in the Gulf Coast. A comparison between San Andrés and La Venta figurines, and a review of the San Andrés zoomorphic figurines, reveals some prominent icons in Olmec imagery. This comparison provides evidence of the ideological ties between San Andrés and the La Venta polity, and helps us to understand human behavior at San Andrés. Serra Puche (1996: 35-39) proposes the following ideas about the Olmec. Olmec daily life developed in three main areas: the countryside, the village, and the ceremonial center. The countryside, particularly the forests, were used infrequently by the people during the Formative period (Serra Puche 1996:36-37). Tied to their religious beliefs was the idea that the forest was the place in which their animal counterparts lived. Agriculture was the principal subsistence strategy during the Formative period, in which the most common technique was slash and burn field preparation. Along with agriculture, the Formative period communities also engaged in such activities as gathering, fishing, and hunting. Most of the Formative period communities were organized as villages (Serra Puche 1996:37-38). Various family groups resided with each other and associated with each other through kinship ties, economic relations, and group activities. Activities included food preparation, tool-making, constructing and maintaining shelters, and caring for children, the elderly, and the sick. Daily life also included a strong ritual component that was tied to their 78

97 everyday activities. Village members with special abilities, such as powers in curing, prognostication, divination, and transformation, were important figures in the village community that helped the people function in daily life. The third area in Olmec daily life was the ceremonial center (Serra Puche 1996:38-39). The ceremonial center arose out of the village s need to obtain resources that were scarce in their local area, and to participate in community ritual. The first ceremonial centers emerged around 1300 B.C. New social structures emerged in the ceremonial center, such as apprenticeship groups specializing in craft production, regional exchange networks trading goods and ideas, and political and religious powers for governing. Serra Puche (1996:39) states that the majority of the utilitarian objects (lithics and ceramics) in Olmec villages are not Olmec in style. Instead, Olmec objects are produced and found primarily in ceremonial centers, and their function was mainly related to ceremonial life at these centers. Olmec objects did not have a practical function, but were used to formalize a variety of social relations" (Serra Puche 1996:39). Recent investigations, such as that at San Andrés, however, show that Olmec objects can be found in residential areas, and that ritual behavior took place on a smaller scale, involving household members and their kin or neighbors. The Olmec world view combined three main traditions of thought: the shamanistic ideology, the worship of natural forces, and the belief in the power of the ruler (Joralemon 1996:51-59). The shamanistic ideology is the oldest tradition, from around 25,000-7,000 B.C. It was a belief that animating forces were present in all living things (Tate 1996) and that the universe was composed of different realms: the heavens, the earth, and the underworld. There were four cardinal directions, with the center of the world being the fifth axis. Shamans acted as mediators between the natural and supernatural worlds and had special powers of healing (Reilly 1996). They ensured success and prosperity for the community by communicating with the animating forces, gods and ancestors, and animal counterparts through magical ritual. The second tradition that comprised the Olmec world view was a worship of natural forces or entities: sun, rain, fertility of soil and crops, springs, caves, volcanoes, and mountains. This set of beliefs first developed from 7,000-1,500 B.C., after food crops became domesticated, sedentary life took place, and new technologies for the processing of food were created. A third tradition emerged after differences in status and rank replaced egalitarian social orders (Grove 79

98 1992). Rulers claimed power by proclaiming their right as being descended from gods. Thus, the ruler had a central role in the world, as a mediator between the people and the gods. La Venta Studies at La Venta have proven that the site was an urban center of significant power and influence in the Gulf Coast region (Benson 1968, Coe et al. 1995, Drucker 1952, González Lauck 1996, Sharer and Grove 1989). Evidence suggests that a large resident population occupied the site, including residents who specialized in producing things other than food resources, such as a serpentine workshop found in Rust's investigations (see discussion below). Also, there is evidence for political, religious, economic, or military relations with surrounding sites. Other evidence that La Venta was a center is an apparent ceremonial precinct, administrative structures, and residential areas within the city as well as outside of it, including peripheral settlements such as San Andrés. Of the various structures at La Venta, the small ceremonial precinct, Complex A, is one of the most intensively excavated areas and was probably the most sacred. Some findings within this area include a columnar basalt enclosure, a monolithic coffer, over 50 offerings of portable objects, and massive, deeply buried offerings. The basalt enclosure contained the bones of two young individuals covered with red pigment, finely carved objects of greenstone, a stingray spine, hematite, jade, obsidian, and other materials. The sandstone coffer, or Monument 6, had a lid, and contained jade ear ornaments, a serpentine figurine, and other greenstone objects. The space of Complex A had limited access because it was surrounded by an enclosure of basalt columns. One of the best known Olmec offerings of portable objects is Offering 4 (Figure 5.1) at Complex A. It portrayed a scene comprised of sixteen figurines. Eleven are in a semicircle. Four are in a procession in front of one figurine, which faces the rest of the group. The latter figure was the only one in the offering made of sandstone; two others are made of jade, and the remaining 13 figures are made of serpentine. Six fragments of celts were erected behind the sandstone figure, as though representing stelae (González Lauck 1996:78). The arrangement of 80

99 Figure Offering 4 from La Venta Complex A (from Drucker 1959:Plate 30) 81

100 the figurines is especially significant in figurine studies because it demonstrates that these small representations were used to depict historical or mythical scenes. One interpretation of Offering 4 is that it portrayed spiritual authorities in a meditative stance performing a ritual ceremony (Tate 1995:57-58). The figures are focused on the east and "meditate next to cosmic axis effigies (the celts) bearing the incised images of a "flier" to the otherworld and the earth monster from whom the world tree grows" (Tate 1995:58). Other structures include Structure C-1 or the Great Mound/Pyramid, the Stirling Acropolis which may have had workshops, Complex B, and Complex D (González Lauck 1996). Little is known about these groups of structures. Complex E shows evidence of permanent residential areas. The San Andrés investigations provide additional information on residential areas outside of this center. The research at La Venta suggests that this site was not only a city, but was a capital of a larger political unit, with considerable social and political complexity. A Comparison of San Andrés Figurines with La Venta Figurines Drucker's (1952) study of La Venta figurines is particularly relevant to the study of the San Andrés figurines because San Andrés was a part of the La Venta polity and the figurines are contemporaneous. The figurines from both sites show a strong resemblance to each other. Figurine heads reveal the closest similarities. For example, San Andrés Figurine H-12 (Figure 5.2a), a head from the Late Puente phase, is similar to Plate 28-g in Drucker's study (Figure 5.2d). San Andrés Figurine H-12 has a turban, downturned mouth, clearly defined ears, and full cheeks, much like the head in Drucker s La Venta collection. Another example is San Andrés figurine head H-23 (Figure 5.2b, Early Franco), which resembles the La Venta figurine head shown in Drucker's Plate 37-c (Figure 5.2e). Both heads have punctated eyes, minimal indications of a nose, and a striated detail on the top of the head. Another set of comparable figurine heads includes San Andrés H-26 (Figure 5.2c, Early Franco) and two similar heads shown in Drucker's Plates 28-b and 37-d (Figures 5.2f and 5.2g). All three heads have eyes indicated by slits, somewhat downturned mouths indicated by slits, full and rounded faces, triangular noses, and an appliqué detail on the top of the head. 82

101 a b c d e f g Figure San Andrés figurine heads similar to La Venta figurine heads. Top row - San Andrés: a) H-12, b) H-23, c) H-26. Bottom row - La Venta (from Drucker, 1952): d) Plate 28-g, e) Plate 37-c, f) Plate 28-b, g) Plate 37-d 83

102 Figurine torsos from both San Andrés and La Venta also closely resemble each other. One example is San Andrés Figurine T-27 (Figure 5.3a), which is similar in the manner of dress to the La Venta figurine shown in Drucker's Plate 31-c (Figure 5.3d). Both torsos wear belts and loincloths, have pendants or ornaments on the chest, and have a socket in the back for attachment of a tenoned head (see Figure 5.4). The torsos wear male-gendered garments similar to a figure on Mural 1 at Oxtotitlan Cave in Guerrero (see Figure 5.6). The figurines are broken in a similar manner. The torsos, such as those in Figure 5.3 (a and b), lack arms except for an upper arm fragment and have one complete thigh and a partial upper thigh fragment. The breakage on the figurines is not a casual occurrence. Greenstone figurines with a broken arm or leg have been found (see Benson 1996:Cats. 44, 46, 48, 49, 50). This breakage would have required considerable effort due to the durable greenstone material, and thus, signifies a ritual destruction of these images. Follensbee notes that larger Olmec sculptures were intentionally broken (2000:77-78), and she argues that the structurally strong parts (such as the torsos) of figurines are often broken while the weaker limbs and appendages remain intact. Blomster (1998, 2002:184), who studied hollow figurines of Early Formative Mesoamerica, mentions the findings of systematically broken figurines suggestive of ritual use. Grove (1981) discusses the ritual mutilation of Olmec monuments as being a key to their use. The figurines at San Andrés and La Venta also appear to have been broken after use. San Andrés Figurine T-20 (Figure 5.3b) is similar to the figurine in Drucker's Plate 31-i (Figure 5.3e). Both are seated, with blunt or incomplete legs, no arms, and large abdomens that probably indicate pregnancy. San Andrés Figurine T-20, however, has a band over the chest, while Drucker's Plate 31-i figurine has breasts. Another similarity is evident in torsos represented by San Andrés Figurine T-32 (Figure 5.3c) and Drucker's Plate 35-l figurine (Figure 5.3f). Both torsos wear a round pendant with smaller beads attached below. The feasting refuse of Units 7 and 8 at San Andrés (see Chapter 4) yielded a hand fragment (see Figure 5.5a), a foot fragment, one seated female figure wearing a round pendant on her chest, one lower torso of a standing female, and one standing male figure (Figure 5.4), as well as other objects, including a perforated shark tooth. Like Offering 4 at La Venta Complex A, these figurines may have been used to portray a ritual scene. The materials found nearby (San Andrés Unit 8, Level 7) included miniature urns that may have been used with the figurines to 84

103 San Andrés La Venta a d b e c f Figure San Andrés figurine torsos similar to La Venta torsos Left column - San Andrés: a) T-27, b) T-20, c) T-32 Right column - La Venta (from Drucker, 1952): d) Plate 31-c, e) Plate 31-i, f) Plate 35-l 85

104 a b c Figure San Andrés figurine torsos (front and back views) found in association with hand L-132: a) T-27, b) T-26, c) T-28 86

105 reenact an event. The seated female may have been someone of high rank or authority, due to her seated posture and the unique garment around her chest. The male torso may have been an individual of high status due to his garments and a round pectoral on his chest. The hand (Figure 5.5a) associated with the figurines is a special find because other figurines have limited or non-existent treatment of the extremities, both hands and feet. The representation of hands is rare in Mesoamerica (Benson 1996:243). Splayed or open hands comprise the "hand/paw/wing" motif (Figure 5.5d, e), part of a symbolic form referring to the composite zoomorph theme known as the Olmec jaguar-dragon (Joralemon 1971:10, 35, 38-41, Pohorilenko 1996:123), which has strong associations with caves, volcanoes, fertility, and the earth (Joralemon 1971:90). When depicted from the front, the dragon's maw is represented as rectangular brackets that are interpreted as referring to entrances to caves, and thus, entrances to the underworld (Coe et al. 1995:120). Hands are present on the Mural 1 figure at Oxtotitlan Cave (see Figure 5.6). The "hand/paw/wing" motif refers to the "dragon's" limbs and is one of the abbreviated forms of this principal Olmec creature. The ceramic hand from San Andrés (L- 132) is made with a fine, glassy volcanic ash temper and is light in color. Perhaps its association with the figurines signifies a ritual involving communication with the ancestors or gods of the underworld, particularly the jaguar-dragon deity. The shark's tooth, which may have been for bloodletting, would have been one of the ways to offer supplications to the deities. A comparable find at La Venta came from the previously mentioned columnar basalt enclosure under Mound A-2. The offering included a pair of jade hands with forearms (Figure 5.5b), along with a seated female figurine made of greenstone, wearing a round hematite mirror on her chest and dusted with red pigment (see Chapter 3, Figure 3.9). The deposit also yielded fragments of stingray spines and a shark's tooth (Benson 1996:216), both of which were probably related to bloodletting. The La Venta materials were deeply buried under a mound. The materials from San Andrés came from a midden with elite objects suggesting a feasting ritual (von Nagy, 1999:41). Both contexts may reflect elite activity and beliefs that are related. Hands are a significant Olmec motif that may be related to water. Another carved greenstone hand of unknown provenience (Figure 5.5c) may have been a ceremonial vessel such as a canoe. The Portrero Nuevo Monument from Loma del Zapote, Veracruz (Figure 5.7), depicts two figures supporting a throne. The image of them upholding a throne, upon which a 87

106 a b c d Figure 5.5 Hands: a) Close-up of San Andrés figurine hand L-132, b) Jade hands from La Venta, Mound A-2 (from Benson and de la Fuente, 1996:243, photo by Michel Zabé), c) Jade Hand vessel from Mexico (from Coe 1995:Cat.82), d) Composite zoomorph design in various stages of stylization, e) Hand motif found on Tlatilco pottery 88 e

107 Figure Line drawing of Mural 1 from Oxtotitlan Cave, Guerrero, with arrows added to point out the hand depictions on the knees (from Grove 1970:Fig.150) Figure Potrero Nuevo Monument 2 from Loma del Zapote, Veracruz (Benson and de la Fuente 1996: Cat.3) 89

108 ruler would sit, relates to the Oxtotitlan mural (see Figure 5.6) of a ruler sitting on a throne. As mentioned before, two hands are present on the knees, suggesting support similar to that given by the two figures. Thus, the image of hands may relate to notions of supplicating gods and ancestors in the watery underworld (Reilly 1994), as well as the importance of a community's support for their ruler. In this way, hands may represent the idea of support. A ruler needed the support and labor of the people to construct La Venta. A host needed the support of many hands to provide a feast at San Andrés. Rust's earlier excavations at San Andrés recovered a jade bead in the shape of a hand, which an individual might have worn as a sign of support. A third meaning of hands may be that it refers to an offering. Follensbee (2000:Figures 159 and 162) illustrates figures holding boxes in offering such as La Venta Monument 70 and La Venta Monument 74. The boxes may have been ritual offerings of supplication to the gods or ancestors. The image of hands may refer to these offerings. Rust's Excavations at La Venta Rust's (1987) report from the 1986 excavations reveals the ritual use of figurines within domestic areas surrounding the civic-ceremonial complex at La Venta. Complex H, Level II, showed a possible floor with figurine fragments, along with obsidian and a mano made of basalt. A figurine had punctate eyes similar to those found on Nacaste period figurines from San Lorenzo. Operation 28, Complex E, revealed a possible workshop for serpentine, and a residential area with a burial offering. Many figurines were found associated with this area, in addition to polishing stones and worked serpentine. Level II had fragments from a nude female figurine with Middle Formative dates, along with basalt metate fragments, obsidian blades, jasper and small serpentine fragments. Feature 3 of Test Pit 2 had a helmeted figurine head. Operation 29, Complex E, had a serpentine workshop with offerings dating to 750 B.C. Two dense concentrations of sherds were present (Features 1 and 2). Feature 1 had a relatively high percentage of fine paste ceramics. Four offerings were present, including an apparent urn burial, possibly a secondary burial of an infant or child (Offering 2), which was associated with the sherd concentration in Feature 1. A basalt mano and other manos, and a figurine head of 90

109 "infantile" type, were situated close to the urn burial. This particular context of the urn offering shows a ritual use of figurines. Operation 30, Complex E, Test Pit 1, Feature 1, revealed a rectangular pit in which an offering of three clay figurines were situated. A nude female torso was present between two vessels (Vessels 1 and 2, 110 cm deep). Figurines 2 and 3 were on a little step platform on the west edge of the feature (at 140 cm deep). Figure 2 was a helmeted head with features similar to the monumental stone heads. Figurine 3 was an animal-shaped ocarina, possibly a monkey (Rust refers to Weiant 1943: Plate 50-51). Between the two figurines were two obsidian blades. Feature 1 (Operation 30, Complex E) may be related to a person who worked stone, due to the numerous pieces of used polishing stone and polished pieces of serpentine and waste fragments in the Operations 29 and 30 fill, indicating that this may have been a workshop area. Complex E also had residential and storage areas. These areas had few fine paste or decorated ceramics and few figurines, but numerous remains of basalt grinding tools and obsidian blade use. Worked serpentine or other high-status objects were not found in these areas. A circular area with dense charcoal, indicating a probable cooking area, was found in Complex G of Operation 33 (Test pit 2). A basalt metate and three manos were also found here. Elite status objects include a polished serpentine fragment and a pointed fragment of polished rock crystal. A relatively high percentage of fine paste ceramics in this deposit may indicate high status or a ceremonial and ritual dimension. Feature 2 (Operation 33) had whole or large fragments of eleven vessels, several of which were stacked. The vessels included cooking and storage jars and probable eating vessels, such as plates and bowls. Many ceramic figurines were found, similar to those found in Complex E of Operation 29. A torso with outstretched arms is dressed in probable ballplayer's garments similar to one from earlier excavations at La Venta. A large male torso was found with a small helmeted head. According to Follensbee, heads with simple, close-fitting helmets are probably female. A Carbon-14 date of 690 ± 90 was obtained for Feature 2. This feature indicates figurine use in a domestic context, although a ritual function may have been related to this particular domestic setting, i.e., to prepare food for rituals. 91

110 Zoomorphic Figurines The San Andrés figurine collection includes 10 animal figures, representing 3 percent of the total collection. Animals were revered and respected in Mesoamerica, as evidenced by numerous zoomorphic representations in various media such as ceramic, greenstone, and stone. The study of their forms, their contextual association with other cultural materials, and their roles in Olmec imagery, provides additional information about the belief systems of the San Andrés inhabitants. All of the animal figures, except Figurine A-04 (a duck bill), are medium-sized (see Chapter 2, Figurine Size). Eight of the animal figurines are solid and the remaining two are hollow. They were found in the early levels of the Molina phase up to the Late Franco phase. Seven animals appear to be birds (Figures 5.8, 5.10a, 5.11a, 5.12a). Birds were considered sacred animals in Mesoamerica beginning in the Formative period (Benson 1996:192, 242; Coe et al. 1995:121, 182-3) (Figure 5.8). Birds, in general, were creatures related to the sky, the celestial realm. Their powers lay in their ability to traverse from the earth and across the sky, matching the movements of the sun (Joralemon 1971). Figurine A-05 (Figure 5.8b) shows a bird's power of speech because it is an ocarina, or musical instrument. A bird's power of speech allowed it to carry messages to the deities. The bird ocarina was found with a figurine head (H- 15), whose mouth was open as though in the act of singing or speaking (see Chapter 4). Water birds, such as ducks, were special in that they could occupy all three realms of sky, land, and water, and thus were mediators in the natural and supernatural worlds (Coe et al. 1995:182). Figure 5.9 is a bird figure from Las Bocas showing the connections of the natural bird form with the supernatural attributes related to it. Notice the hand-paw-wing motif on the body of the bird, signifying the bird's associations with the jaguar-dragon deity, ruler of the fiery sun and earth (Joralemon 1971:67, 90). The hand motif on the left side is similar to those found on the Oxtotitlan Mural (see Figure 5.6), particularly the circular design within the hand. Part of a possible duck mask (Figure 5.10a) was found at San Andrés, in a pit feature (Feature 9) associated with materials suggestive of a feasting ritual (see Chapter 4). Evidence for duck masks can be seen on such figures as the pendant from Veracruz (Figure 5.10b) and Altar 7 from La Venta (Figure 5.10c). The Tuxtla statuette (Figure 5.11a) is another example of a person wearing a bird mask, perhaps representing a duck's bill or other water bird such as the 92

111 a b Figure 5.8 Examples of San Andrés bird figurines: a) Figurine A-10 from Molina complex, b) Figurine A-05 from Late Puente complex, c) Figurine A-06 from Early Franco complex c Figure Pottery duck from Las Bocas (from Grove 1970:Fig.192) 93

112 a (photo by Mary Pohl) b c Figure Duck bill masks: a) San Andrés Figurine A-04, b) Duck bill pendant from Veracruz (from Coe, et al 1995: Cat.181), c) La Venta Altar 7 - Large head in bold relief that appears to represent a head wearing a possible duck bill mask (from Drucker 1952: Plate 65b) 94

113 a b Figure Examples of Bird's Beak Masks: a) Tuxtla statuette from Veracruz, Epi-Olmec (from Stuart 1993), b) Human-duck effigy tecomate from Chiapas, Early Formative period (from Rosenswig 2003:Fig.4, drawing by Joe McGreevy) 95

114 Boat-billed Heron (Kaufman and Justeson 2001:97-98). This figurine, made of greenstone and measuring approximately 15 centimeters in height, was found in Veracruz (Rands 1965:576). It is particularly significant in Mesoamerican studies because it is one of the few discoveries that bears epi-olmec writing, including a date of 162 A.D. (Justeson and Kaufman 1997). The writing is in an ancestral language of the Mixe-Zoque family, a "pre-proto-zoquean" ancestor of four languages spoken in present-day Veracruz, Tabasco, Oaxaca, and Chiapas. Another example of a human head with a duck mask (Figure 5.11b) was recently found on a tecomate (rimless jar) from the site of Cuauhtémoc on the Pacific coast of Chiapas (Rosenswig 2002, 2003). This vessel is from the Locona phase ( BC), and may be one of the earliest examples of the duck mask image to appear in Mesoamerica. Other examples of duck masks can be found on La Venta Stela 2 (Follensbee:270, Figs.70-71), La Venta Altar 6 (Follensbee, Fig.103), and another pendant almost identical to the one in Figure 5.8b (Pohorilenko 1996:Fig.11). The significance of ducks may be that they are often in watery realms, and thus associated with symbols of water, and the underworld. The San Andrés duck bill was associated with other figurines, including 3 heads that appeared to depict injured or sick individuals as well as the dwarf or infant figurine, which may be related to rain and sacrifice (Joralemon 1971:90) or to mediation between the earth and the underworld (Coe et al. 1995:62 and 216, Ortiz and Rodriguez 2000:86). Perhaps the feasting ritual included a curing ceremony and the supplication of deities. Figurine A-08 (Figure 5.12a) is a possible Muscovy duck (Cairina moschata) identified by characteristic knobby details on the head. The knob details are found in Formative period ceramic images throughout Mesoamerica, both on duck and human figures. On the human heads, they appear like buns on either side of the head. The San Andrés animal head was found in the feasting midden (Unit 7, Level 9). Another bird figurine may extend the duck symbolism. Figurine A-03 (Figure 5.13a) may be an owl, perhaps a Ferruginous Pygmy owl (Glaucidium brasilianum) or a Burrowing owl (Speotyto cunicularia). Owls, in general, occupy forests, clearings, fields, grasslands, mountains, and marshes. Pohl (personal communication 2003) notes that pygmy owls may be found around cave entrances. Many altars, such as those at La Venta, show figures emerging 96

115 a b Figure Muscovy Duck: a) San Andrés Figurine A-08 b) photo of Muscovy Duck (Photo by Mark Tway) a Figure Pygmy Owl: a) San Andrés Figurine A-03, b) Ferruginous Pygmy Owl (from Beletsky 1999: Plate 38a) c.) Burrowing Owl (photo by Mark Tway) b c 97

116 from niches that may have represented caves. They are predatory birds, and relate to bloodletting, sacrifice, and water. Burrowing owls occupy small, enclosed spaces resembling caves (Figure 5.13c). Another predatory animal is the Jaguar ( Panthera onca), possibly represented by San Andrés Figurine A-09 (Figure 5.14a). Jaguars can occupy rock crevices or burrows dug by other animals, features that also resemble caves. The figurine was found in the same feasting midden as the Muscovy duck. Figurine A-09 was also associated with figurine torsos and limbs. Two of the figurine torsos were seated individuals, one of which was a unique female with full breasts and a concavity in her abdomen. The hand fragment discussed above was found nearby (Unit 8, Level 7, Feature 1). In addition to complementing the water and sacrifice items of the duck (Joralemon 1971:90), the jaguar had close connections with royal power at La Venta. Many representations show male figures in stages of transformation into a powerful jaguar (Benson and de la Fuente 1996, Coe et al. 1995, Covarrubias 1946, Reilly 1995, Saunders 1989). An animal figurine (A-07, Figure 5.15a) found with Early Franco materials may be a representation of a Paca (Agouti paca). These animals occupy wet forest areas or dry areas near water. Their association with water may have made them special to the San Andrés inhabitants. This animal head was found in the feasting midden (Unit 7, Level 8). One animal figurine (A-01, Figure 5.16a) was found in Late Franco levels. The figurine may be representative of a bat, perhaps a Fishing Bat (Noctilio leporinus) or Common Vampire Bat (Desmodus rotundus). Fishing Bats have ears pointing forward and lips that split in the middle, with drooping folds of skin (Beletsky 1999:374). Vampire Bats have short snouts with fleshy skin folds and triangular pointed ears. Both types occupy wet forests, caves, trees, and areas near water. They fly over water or along riverbeds to get their food. The "bat" figurine head was found in a midden (Unit 1, Level 5) with dense concentrations of ceramics as well as bone, carbon, and obsidian. A human figurine head (H-03) and a human ear fragment (H-04) were found in the same level. The association of bats with ears may be indicative of bloodletting rituals. Evidence for offerings of blood to idols has been documented in Landa's writings on the sixteenth century Maya of Yucatan (Tozzer 1941:76). They included blood from parts of their bodies, along with human sacrifice. Roman y Zamora's ethnohistoric accounts in 1575 state that the people drew blood from the arms, legs, thighs, nose, 98

117 a b Figure Jaguar Images: a) San Andrés Animal Figurine A-09, b) Jaguar - Panthera onca(from Beletsky 1999: Plate 76b) A-07 b Figure Paca: a) San Andrés Figurine A-07, b) Paca - Agouti paca (from Beletsky 1999: Plate 74d) a b Figure Bats: a) San Andrés Figurine A-01, b) Fishing Bat - Noctilio leporinus (from Beletsky 1999: Plate 71a) 99

118 ears, tongue, penis, and other parts of the body (Tozzer 1941). The presence of ear fragments in Unit 1 (H-02, H-04, H-08, and H-10) at San Andrés is of special interest. All of the ear fragments co-occur with bone, obsidian, and carbon remains (except H-10, which had no carbon). The bat figure has associations with consuming blood for nourishment, and the ear fragment found with it may represent that ritual offerings of blood occurred at San Andrés. Discussion The comparison of the San Andrés figurines with La Venta figurines demonstrates that they were closely tied to each other. The people at San Andrés were familiar with, and shared, the belief systems from La Venta. Rust's investigations at La Venta revealed household ritual contexts for figurines as well. The figurines from San Andrés actually appear better-made than those at La Venta. Access to higher status materials, such as greenstone used at La Venta, would probably have been limited, and this fact allowed for a focus on better ceramic images. At La Venta, detail was focused on the more durable stone materials, and less time was spent on the ceramic renderings. The zoomorphic figurines provide additional key information on ritual behavior at San Andrés. Their associations with other materials in ritual contexts indicates that these animal representations were part of a belief system involving offerings to natural and supernatural realms, specifically blood sacrifice, caves, and water. The animal figurines from the ritual feasting deposit in Units 7 and 8, such as the duck and jaguar, demonstrate that this activity revolved around the most sacred themes of Olmec religion. 100

119 CHAPTER 6 FIGURINE STUDIES IN MESOAMERICA Introduction A comparison of Formative period figurines from other sites in Mesoamerica helps to define the characteristics of the San Andrés figurines. Although the figurine styles may differ from site to site, the contextual data provide clues to figurine use and functions. This comparison includes Formative period figurine data from the following areas (Figure 6.1): the lowland Gulf Coast area of Veracruz (San Lorenzo and Tres Zapotes); the central Grijalva River depression of Chiapas (Chiapa de Corzo); the Pacific slope of Mexico (Mazatán region); the early Maya site of Cuello in Belize; the Basin of Mexico (Zacatenco, Gualupita, and Tlatilco); the highlands of Morelos (Chalcatzingo); and the Valley of Oaxaca (San José Mogote). The figurines from these areas range in date from the Early Formative to the Late Formative periods. These areas were chosen because they offer well documented archaeological contexts contemporaneous with San Andrés, as well as throughout the Formative period in general. By looking at the similarities and differences in figurines and figurine contexts from surrounding areas outside of the La Venta polity, one gains a better sense of the significance of Mesoamerican figurines through space and during the Formative period timeframe. San Lorenzo San Lorenzo was the most prominent Early Formative period center in the Gulf coastal lowlands of Veracruz in Mexico. The center had monumental architecture and a dense 101

120 102 Figure Comparative Early and Middle Formative Sites within Mesoamerica (Adapted from Weaver 1993:41)

121 population that flourished from approximately B.C., before the rise of La Venta. Almost all of the figurines at San Lorenzo were found in construction fill, originally obtained from household midden refuse (Coe and Diehl, 1980:260). During the Early Formative period, the San Lorenzo figurines featured ballplayers. The representation of female figurines increased throughout Mesoamerica during the Middle Formative period, including at San Lorenzo. The San Lorenzo figurines (Figure 6.2) most similar to those from San Andrés are from the Middle Formative Palangana phase ( B.C.), contemporaneous with San Andrés. The San Lorenzo female torsos, some with mirror pendants, are particularly similar to those at San Andrés. The small solid heads from this phase have round face shapes, prominent noses, earspools with central punctations, and double bun hairstyles, as opposed to the single buns at San Andrés. The technique used for eyes is different as well, with three punctations for each eye. The downturned "Olmec" mouth, such as that on Figure 6.2d, is also found on San Andrés figurines (see Chapter 5, Figures 5.1a,c). Tres Zapotes The site of Tres Zapotes, in southern Veracruz, Mexico, northwest of the La Venta region, flourished during the Middle to Late Formative periods, as La Venta declined. Precise contextual information for Tres Zapotes figurines is lacking, but the figurines generally occurred in mounds and burials. Weiant's (1943) work at Tres Zapotes provides examples of figurines that share some similarities with figurines from San Andrés and La Venta, but the Tres Zapotes figurines have a punching or punctation style for representation of facial features that is infrequent in the San Andrés collection. Nevertheless, San Andrés Figurine H-05 (from mixed Late Puente and Early Franco phases, dating approximately B.C.) resembles those from Tres Zapotes, particularly the heads in Weiant's Plates 4, 5, and 8 (Figure 6.3). Tres Zapotes torsos share some overall similarities with San Andrés torsos. Neck ornamentation, which includes many beads, is more elaborate (Figure 6.4) compared to the single round pendant common on San Andrés torsos (see Chapter 3-Figures 3.8a-d). 103

122 a b c d Figure San Lorenzo Palangana phase figurines (from Coe and Diehl, 1980:279) 104

123 a b Figure a) San Andrés figurine head H-05, b) Tres Zapotes figurine head, Plate 4-5 (from Weiant, 1943) Figure Examples of Tres Zapotes figurine torsos (from Weiant, 1943: Plates 32-4 and 34-1) 105

124 Grijalva River: Chiapa de Corzo Chiapa de Corzo is located on the east bank of the Grijalva River in the lower end of the Central Depression of Chiapas (Lee 1969). Figurines were found in open primary plaza deposits or areas that may have been residential in nature before the Guanacaste (ca B.C.) and Horcones (ca.100 B.C.-A.D. 100) phases. Lee (1969: 12-13) notes the strong similarities of the figurines with those from La Venta. The round, full face shapes of Chiapa de Corzo figurine heads are similar to some of the face shapes at San Andrés. The major difference between the collections is in the eye treatments. The common techniques for fashioning eyes at San Andrés are an incised stroke, sometimes with a light punctation for pupils, or an almond-shaped incision to outline the eyes. Chiapa de Corzo techniques during the Middle Formative Dili phase ( B.C.) involve a deep punctation in pupils. Despite the fact that the site is farther away from San Andrés and the La Venta region than San Lorenzo, the Chiapa de Corzo figurines appear more similar to the San Andrés figurines than Middle Formative figurines from San Lorenzo. This fact reflects trade connections extending from the La Venta region to the Grijalva drainage (Agrinier 1984, Benson 1996, Lee 1989). Both obsidian (Doering 2002) and ground stone (Du Vernay 2003) artifacts at San Andrés attest to these exchange patterns. San Andrés figurine H-27 (Figure 6.5a) from the Early Franco Complex is similar to the Chiapa de Corzo figurine shown in Lee's Figure 2-q (Figure6.6a), which dates to the Dili phase ( B.C.). The Chiapa de Corzo figurine in Figure 4-i (Figure 6.6b) somewhat resembles San Andrés Figurine H-15 (Figure 6.5b) and dates to ca. 300 B.C. Figures 6.6c, d, and e display Chiapa de Corzo heads recovered from surface and fill that closely resemble the San Andrés style. In addition to the heads, the torsos from both sites are similar. Lee (1969:42) mentions the frequent presence of an "appliquéd, flat, plain, round, button necklace" on the torsos, also present on the San Andrés torsos. 106

125 a Figure San Andrés figurine heads: a) H-27, b) H-15 b a b c Figure Chiapa de Corzo figurine heads (from Lee, 1969): a) Fig.2-q, p.14, b) Fig. 4-i, p.18,c) Fig.1-k, p.11, d) Fig.9-m, p.31, e) Fig.9-n, p.31) d e 107

126 Mazatán Region on the Pacific Slope The Mazatán region includes Pacific coastal sites in Mexico and Guatemala dating from the Late Archaic through the Late Formative periods. One site, Paso de la Amada, has a large figurine assemblage that spans the Early Formative period. Richard Lesure (1997:233) analyzed these figurines, focusing on those dating from the Ocos phase (ca B.C.). In general, the figurines were found in trash deposits in household contexts. Lesure found that two main images were present in the collection: young women and elderly men. The female torsos (Figure 6.7) are somewhat similar in appearance to the San Andrés torsos, including round pendants on the chests, which may be evidence for continuity between the Early and Middle Formative periods. The hips on the Paso de la Amada figures flare out more than those of San Andrés figurines, and the breasts appear larger on the Paso de la Amada torsos. Nevertheless, they are more similar than torsos from other areas of Mesoamerica, such as Oaxaca, Tlatilco and Chalcatzingo. Two disks are present on the top sides of San Andrés figurine head H-18 (Figure 6.8). They are similar to those found in figurines from the Mazatán region (Blake et al. 1995:170, Clark, 1991:21) during the Ocos phase ( B.C.) and Cherla phase (ca B.C.). Clark (1991: 20-21) states that the round shapes may represent mirrors that were parts of helmets or headdresses. Clark cites archaeological evidence found in burials at El Vivero and Paso de la Amada in the Mazatán area for forehead mirrors. Figure 6.9 shows a range of figurine heads from the Mazatán region spanning from the Barra phase (ca B.C.) to the Cuadros phase (ca B.C.). Some heads have two knobs on the top and sides of the head (Figure 6.9f, h, i), which may be hair buns. The heads from the Cherla (ca B.C.) and Cuadros phases appear similar to those from the Gulf Coast. Cuello Cuello is an early Maya site located in northern Belize. Excavations (McSwain et al. 108

127 Figure Figurine Torsos from Paso de la Amada, Ocos phase (ca B.C.) (from Lesure 1997: Figure 1) a b Figure Figurines with possible mirrors on heads, a.) Mazatán region, Ocos phase ca B.C. (from Clark 1991:21), b.) San Andrés H-18, Early Franco phase ca /550 B.C. 109

128 Figure Ceramic figurine heads from the Pacific Coast: a) Barra/Locona phases (ca B.C.), b-d) Locona phase (ca B.C.), e-g) Ocos phase (ca B.C.), h-i) Cherla phase (ca B.C.), j-l) Cherla/Cuadros phases (ca B.C.), (from Blake et al. 1995: Figure7) 110

129 1991) revealed a ceramic sequence dating from the late Early Formative period up to the beginning of the Classic period (approximately 1200 B.C.- A.D. 250). Anthropomorphic figurines were used for almost the entire Formative period, although they were an uncommon occurrence (McSwain et al. 1991: 177). The earliest human figurines appear in the Swasey complex (ca B.C.) and are described as generally small in size. The succeeding Bladen phase follows (ca B.C.), when naturalistic anthropomorphic figurines, zoomorphic figurines, and roller and flat stamps make their first appearance. Large figurines occur during this phase, as well as small ones. The Cuello stamps are parallels to the Olmec roller stamps found at La Venta and San Andrés (see Chapter 4, Figure 4.7b). The use of marine shells at Cuello is documented from the Swasey phase onwards, and may be Olmec-related. The use of ocher, which may be another Olmec-influenced trait, is found in the late Bladen phase and onwards. The Olmec "U" glyph, found on the San Andrés roller stamp (see Figure 4.7b), may be found at Cuello on a ceramic sherd with a complex design from the Lopez phase (ca B.C.) (McSwain et al. 1991:177, Figure 8.17a, SF909), and on a limestone cylinder with a U-shaped design on the end of it (McSwain et al. 1991:191, Figure 8.52, SF 164). The figurine torsos at Cuello (Figure 6.10 top) may be similar to San Andrés torsos, but more examples are needed to make a better comparison. A bird ocarina (Figure 6.10 bottom) from Cuello is similar to one in the San Andrés collection (see Figure 4.4b, Figurine A-05). The number of figurines in the Cuello collection is not clear. The contexts are generally from trash or fill. An infant burial containing a bird-shaped ocarina (similar to the Classic period example in Figure 6.10 bottom) is the only primary context found (McSwain et al. 1991:178). Basin of Mexico Zacatenco and Gualupita The sites of Zacatenco and Gualupita are close to Mexico City, in the Basin of Mexico. George Vaillant's (1930, 1934) early work at these sites produced an extensive figurine typology that became a reference for comparing figurines from other areas in Mesoamerica. The figurines 111

130 Figure 6.10 Examples of ceramic figurines from Cuello (from Hammond 1991:178 & 179) 112

131 Figure Vaillant's Types D1 and D2 figurine heads from Zacatenco (from Vaillant 1930: Plate XIX) 113

132 were found mostly in house debris (Vaillant 1930: 36). The dates for these sites are unclear, but may be from the Middle to Late Formative periods. The figurines most similar to those from San Andrés are Vaillant s Type D figurines (Figure 6.11). The D1 and D2 figurines have a groove or plough stroke, or thin fillets for the eye and mouth treatments. The head shapes are almost rectangular. The female form predominates in these collections, as it does at San Andrés. Tlatilco Tlatilco is an Early Formative site dating from approximately B.C. (Tolstoy 1989:85). It is situated just outside of present day Mexico City, in the Río Hondo Valley. The site is mostly known for the large number of burials uncovered, though it probably was a residential area, where burials were placed under or near dwelling spaces (Tolstoy 1989:101,102). Ceramic figurines were found within these burials (see Figure 6.12 for examples). Porter (1953:23) describes the figurines being so abundant that they are one of the most outstanding cultural characteristics of the site. The figurines were identified under Vaillant s types D1, D2, D3, K and C5. Most of the figurines are female. One Early Formative figurine (Figure 6.12b), from Burial 172, was covered with red pigment and had a hematite mirror on the chest similar to one on the greenstone figurine from Middle Formative La Venta (see Chapter 3 - Figure 3.6). Figurines with iron ore mirrors attached to them were found at Tlatilco (Piña Chan 1971:175, Tolstoy 1989:109). Some figurines appear similar to those from the Gulf Coast (Figure 6.12 a, b) and may even have been attempts to copy them. The Tlatilco figurines differ from the San Andrés figurines in eye treatments, face shapes, and torso shapes. The Tlatilco eye treatments are done with plough strokes or the use of fillets. The Tlatilco face shapes appear longer and less round, and the torsos are exaggerated. Chalcatzingo Chalcatzingo is situated in eastern Morelos, about 100 km southeast of Mexico City (Grove 1987). The site flourished during the Formative period, with initial occupation dating from 1500 B.C. (Cyphers 1993). Investigations at Chalcatzingo uncovered over 8,000 figurine 114

133 Figure Examples of Tlatilco figurines (from Porter 1953: Plate 4) 115

134 Figure Examples of Chalcatzingo C8 figurine heads and figurine torsos (from Grove 1987:424 & 496) 116

135 fragments, 4,000 of which date to the Cantera phase ( B.C.), contemporaneous with San Andrés. Cyphers (1993:213) suggests that a lack of clear evidence for ritual breakage may indicate that breakage on the figurines is due to an inherent weakness in the manufacture of the figurines. Figurines were most abundant in domestic spaces where evidence for food production took place, indicated by the presence of carbon in association with hearths, braziers, domestic pottery, and ground-stone artifacts (Cyphers 1993:216). In two cases, figurines were found with infant burials representing possible offerings. The typology of the Chalcatzingo figurines is based on Vaillant's 1930, 1931, and 1935 typology of figurines from Zacatenco, Ticomán, and El Arbolillo in the Basin of Mexico. Head types present at Chalcatzingo were identified as C2, C5, C8, and Ch types of Vaillant s classification. Cyphers (1993:214) identifies the C8 figurines as similar to those from Olmec sites, such as La Venta and Tres Zapotes. This similarity implies increasing contact with the Gulf Coast area during the Cantera phase ( B.C.). The C8 heads (Figure 6.13) differ from the San Andrés figurines mainly in head and eye treatments. The headdresses are more elaborate and taller on Chalcatzingo figurines than on San Andrés figurines, a fact that indicates variation in clothing in the two areas. The eye technique at Chalcatzingo appears to involve deep punctations for pupils, rounder shapes of the eye in general, and incisions above the eyes to depict eyebrows. The Chalcatzingo figurine torsos have more pronounced breasts, hips, and thighs than the figurines at San Andrés. Similarities between the torsos are that some figurines show indications of the linea gris and pubic triangles, and some wear round pendants. Oaxaca Valley Joyce Marcus' (1998) work on the Early and Middle Formative figurines from Oaxaca examines a large, diverse collection. Her focus on men's and women's activity areas has produced contextual data that has greatly aided in understanding Oaxacan figurine use. Oaxacan figurines occur in primary contexts, such as residences, burials, and deliberately arranged scenes in households (Marcus 1998:3). Figurines also occur in secondary contexts, such as household 117

136 Figure Oaxaca figurine heads, Top row: San José phase (ca B.C.), Bottom row: Guadalupe phase (ca B.C.) (from Marcus 1998:94, 97 & 255, photographs by Chris Moser) 118

137 Figure Oaxaca figurine torsos, San José phase (ca B.C.) (from Marcus 1998: Figure 10.17, photographs by Chris Moser) 119

138 midden debris. Tertiary contexts include surface collection, redeposited mound fill, andcleaning of profile walls. The figurines from Oaxaca, particularly during the San José phase (ca B.C.) and the Guadalupe phase (ca B.C.), resemble figurines from San Lorenzo during the San Lorenzo phase ( B.C.) and the Nacaste phase (ca B.C.). Female figures predominate in Oaxacan collections, as they do at San Andrés, but San Andrés figurines do not share many stylistic similarities with Oaxacan figurines. The eye treatments at San Andrés and La Venta demonstrate a light incising technique with minimal or no punching to indicate pupils, in contrast to Oaxacan figurines. The technique of using ploughing strokes around the eyeball and the use of fillets to shape the eyes on Oaxacan figurines also differentiates them from San Andrés figurines (Figure 6.14). San Andrés figurines show more subtle indications of brow ridges and eyelids than in the Oaxaca Valley. Oaxacan figurines from the Rosario phase (ca B.C.), in particular, show minimal resemblance to those from San Andrés due to the heavy fillets or deep incisions used around the eyes. The figurine torsos (Figure 6.15) from the Oaxaca Valley have more pronounced breasts, hips and thighs than those from San Andrés. They were made in seated or standing postures. Marcus (1998:47-48, ) states that the seated postures probably reflected positions of authority. Some of the standing figurines were in an "obeisance posture," with arms folded in front, and probably represented a subordinate status. Ornamentation consists of earspools, necklaces, and noseplugs. Necklaces could be beaded or have a pendant made of shells or possibly magnetite mirrors. Summary A comparison of Formative period ceramic figurines from sites surrounding the La Venta area provides a better idea of how Mesoamerican figurines were similar to, and differed from, each other. In the most general terms, the use of these anthropomorphic and zoomorphic representations throughout Mesoamerica during the Formative period demonstrates that ideas were being exchanged. During the Middle Formative period, the majority of the figurines in the 120

139 collections from San Lorenzo, the Basin of Mexico, Chalcatzingo, and Oaxaca are female. We see a change in figurine context at Chalcatzingo. Figurines were used in burials during the Early Formative, and later changed to being used in household areas during the Middle Formative period. The figurines were found in food production areas and household debris. At Tlatilco, Early Formative figurines are found in burials, although the burials may have been under residential spaces. At Zacatenco and Gualupita, figurines from the Middle to Late Formative periods are found in house debris. Figurines from Oaxaca are found in primary contexts such as residence areas, burials, and scenes; in secondary contexts such as household midden debris; and in tertiary contexts such as surface collections. The Mazatán region figurines emerged from household contexts and large residential areas during the Early Formative period. In particular, the Paso de la Amada figurines were found in trash deposits in household areas. The Chiapa de Corzo figurines were uncovered in a plaza, which may have been residential before the Late Formative period. In Yucatan, Cuello figurines from the late Early Formative and Middle Formative periods were found in trash and fill contexts, although one figurine was found in a burial. On the Gulf Coast, Tres Zapotes figurines came from mounds and burials. At San Lorenzo, the figurines were found in household midden refuse during the Early and Middle Formative periods. In general, the figurines may have been used for burials before the Middle Formative period. After that time, figurines are mostly found in household midden contexts. Overall, the female depiction in figurines is the predominant form during the Middle Formative period in Mesoamerica. At the same time, we see an increasing occurrence of figurines found in secondary contexts such as household middens and fills. This coincides with a more widespread distribution of Olmec imagery (Clark 1996). Together, these changes contribute to the body of evidence of long-distance exchange networks being established in the Formative period, which co-occurred with increasing political and social complexity throughout Mesoamerica (Grove 1996: , Grove and Gillespie 1992:15-36, Niederberger 1996:83-93). 121

140 CHAPTER 7 FIGURINE USE IN MESOAMERICA What do the figurines from San Andrés represent? Who used these representational forms and why were they used? The figurines are obvious representations of anthropomorphic and zoomorphic beings, but are they of particular individuals or are they general forms that represent a particular deity or idea? As previously discussed, the majority (approximately 89 percent) of the anthropomorphic figurine torsos in the San Andrés collection are female. They were found in household spaces, some associated with possible feasting contexts. Together, the gender and context of the figurines suggests ritual behavior associated with ideas about the female form. The manufacture of female representations indicates a focus on reproduction, fertility, or the female life-cycle. Further consideration leads to the question: what did the female form represent to these Middle Formative peoples? What did it symbolize? At one level, the female body might represent fertility, renewal and continuity, being the source of life. At another level, the female form might represent labor and production, an asset. To create a physical embodiment of those ideals would mean having power over such ideals. This study proposes that figurine function can be understood through mimesis. Mimesis involves the representation of something taking on the power of what is represented. Taussig (1993:13) states that "the making and existence of the artifact that portrays something gives one power over that which is portrayed." The female figurines may have been symbols of fertility and production, and to make and use such representations meant one had the power to ensure the productive and reproductive success, the fecundity, of those who used these symbols. Figurine function at San Andrés becomes more evident through the following review of interpretations of figurine use through the archaeological record, ethnohistoric accounts of figurine use, and ethnographic records of figurine use among modern indigenous cultures in Central America. 122

141 Interpretations of Figurine Use through the Archaeological Record Chalcatzingo Cyphers' (1993: ) analysis of the Cantera phase figurines from Chalcatzingo showed that they were predominantly female: 92% female, 3% male, 5% children. Representations of elderly women were absent among the female figurines. The life cycle of the female, particularly during the reproductive years, was represented by images of females in different stages: puberty, pregnancy (see Figure 7.1), and child rearing. A possible change in function of the Chalcatzingo figurines occurred between the Early Formative and Middle Formative periods. Cyphers (1993:211) states that this change coincides with evidence for regional population growth (Hirth 1987), and probable subsequent agricultural intensification (Boserup 1965), as part of the processes of social differentiation (Price 1984). Figurines from the Basin of Mexico during the Early Formative period were recovered from burials (Piña Chan 1958, Porter 1955). During the Middle Formative period, figurines are less frequently placed in burials in the Basin of Mexico and Morelos (Cyphers 1993, Vaillant 1930, 1935). The Chalcatzingo figurines of the Cantera phase are found in household refuse and middens and cluster around areas where food is prepared and cooked (Cyphers 1988:99-101). The figurines tend not to be used as mortuary offerings during this time, but instead are used for life-cycle rituals. Cyphers (1996:67-69) proposes that Olmec sculptures, specifically the monuments from San Lorenzo, were not simply idols for worship in sacred spaces, but were used in groups to reenact mythological or historical events, and to create commemorative or cyclical festivities to celebrate them. Perhaps ceramic figurines were used in a similar manner on a smaller scale. Oaxaca The contexts of the Oaxacan figurines suggests that the figurines were used by women for household rituals during the Formative period (Marcus 1998:15-29). Marcus suggests that the figurines provided a material means by which ancestral spirits could return to be honored, consulted, and reminded of their duties to take care of their descendents. Because most of the figurines were women and the figurine hairstyles were so detailed, Marcus suggests that the figurine-makers had to be knowledgeable of such hair treatments personally and, therefore, that 123

142 Figure Examples of pregnant torsos from Chalcatzingo (from Cyphers 1990: Figures 1, 2, 3) 124

143 women made the figurines. The need to make the figurines closely resemble the deceased ancestors was not as important as conveying information about the age, marital status, or social rank of the ancestors, which is why the figurines appear stylized. The ancestors were often remembered as they were in the prime of their life (Marcus 1998:312). The figurine-makers expressed such information through hairstyles, body postures, and ornamentation. Lagartero Over five hundred mold-made figurines were recovered from the Maya site of Lagartero (Ekholm 1979: ), situated on the border of Chiapas and Guatemala. The Late Classic figurines were found during excavations in 1976 in a refuse dump, or "basurero," at the south base of a long pyramidal structure designated as Mound 7a. Almost all of the figurines are incomplete. Approximately 60 percent of the torsos are female. They appear to be elite or priestly individuals in stylized and formal poses (Ekholm 1979:174), wearing elaborate clothing. The heads wear elaborate decoration, further suggesting they are elite personages. Mold-made pendants found in the "basurero" display possible representations of shamans and deities. Modeled figurines were also found, although the approximate amount was not stated. All of them appeared to be males and represented a different social class of individuals based on their minimal, simple clothing. Several hundred animal figurines were in the refuse dump, of which approximately one hundred were dog representations (Ekholm 1979:184). Many dog bones were found in the refuse as well. Other materials in the refuse included a large concentration of approximately 500,000 pottery sherds ( two percent are of polychrome vessels), musical instruments, obsidian, shell, censers, lithic tools, weaving tools, spindle whorls, other tools, and human and animal bone (Ekholm 1979). Based on the absence of natural stratigraphy and the homogeneity of the collection, Ekholm (1979:185, 186) proposed that the refuse was deposited within a short duration, perhaps during a single event. Furthermore, the figurines appear to represent a limited number of roles involved in one or more ritual events such as a period ending ceremony (Ekholm 1979:186). 125

144 Ethnohistoric Records on Figurine Use in Mesoamerica The use of idols in Mesoamerica is documented in ethnohistoric accounts. In Landa's (Tozzer 1941: ) accounts on the Sixteenth Century Maya in Yucatan, he states that "they had a very great number of idols...and besides the community temples, the lords, priests and the leading men had also oratories and idols in their houses, where they made their prayers and offerings in private." Tozzer (1941:9, footnote 44) notes the frequent references to female idols. One reference describes numerous clay and wooden idols with female faces that were brought over a period of days, and "it seems...that the number of them...was so great that they could not be counted" (Scholes and Adams 1936: , ). This account describes a pilgrimage made to the temple of Ix Chel on the Isla de las Mujeres. Ix Chel was a Maya female deity believed to have associations with healing and divination (Tozzer 1941:10). She was also known as the moon goddess and patroness of weavers and childbirth. A painting (Figure 7.2) believed to depict Ix Chel holding two small rain deities is present in the Temple of the Frescoes at Tulúm (Ferguson et al. 1977:209). The painting may be a depiction of her invoking the forces of the "Chacs" or rain gods to aid in fertility. Follensbee (2000:79) notes from Landa's accounts that in addition to the figurines being offered at temples and sacred structures, they were placed in agricultural fields, but most commonly were found in residential spaces. Their main function in household areas was for healing purposes. Follensbee (2000:79-80) further discusses accounts from Colonial Period chroniclers on their encounters with Aztec culture. Figurines were used in similar ways, with large ones being used in temples and smaller, naturalistic forms being used for curing rituals. A Spanish report written in 1695 by Franciscan friars recorded their encounter with the Lacandon Maya in the town of Dolores, Chiapas. They noted that the town had many private houses (approximately 100), two large communal houses, and an even larger temple that had "idols, dead fowls, and braziers in which copal had been burnt" (Tozzer 1984:4). The friars also noted that the Lacandon worshiped idols for their maize fields, cacao groves, turkeys, rivers, and other things. Ten principal idols were kept in a special house in the woods, whose location was not revealed to outsiders (Tozzer 1984:12-13). The idols were usually small, carved stone figures of jade that were placed under the burning copal in the censer. The town leaders held a 126

145 Figure Painting of Ix Chel holding two rain deities, from the Temple of the Frescoes at Tulúm, Quintana Roo, Mexico, ca. A.D.1450 (from Athena Review Image Archive: 127

146 four-day ritual involving the consumption of a fermented drink and offerings to the lightning deity. Afterward, the town sacrificed their turkeys, pouring blood on pine branches, and burning them before the idols. They completed the ritual by feasting (Tozzer 1984:15-16). An ethnoarchaeological study by Lee and Hayden (1988) on the Highland Maya of Chiapas discusses the presence of altars in modern Maya homes. They propose that the altarspecific items used in modern private rituals may have Precolumbian equivalents. One of them might be the use of saint's pictures to replace or identify with "idols, figurines (?), or images of ancestor and nature deities" (Lee 1988:89). Ravicz and Romney's (1969:394) study of the Mixtec mentions that Precolumbian figurines found in the fields were kept on the house altar, on the person, or in the house, and were considered "as the gods of the people who went before and being thought to bring good rain, crops, and protection for the household." Ethnographic Accounts of Figurine Use in Central America Ethnographic data on the Otomí Indians from Alan and Pamela Sandstrom (1986) and James Dow (2001) documents Otomí use of paper cutout figures (Figure 7.3) during curing rituals and agricultural events. The Otomí, also known as the Sierra Ñähñu (Dow 2001:74), live in San Pablito, in an area where Hidalgo, Puebla and Veracruz converge in Sierra de Puebla. The women manufacture bark paper (amate) by boiling the bark of certain trees, beating the fibers, and drying them in the sun. The special paper is folded in half and cut out to represent the animating forces of certain beings over which a shaman has magical power. The figures are used for curing by "cleaning" or "sweeping" intrusive forces or airs that have afflicted a person's body (Dow 2001:84-86). A figure is cut out to represent the animating forces and is passed around the person's body, acting as an attractor to draw the illness outside of the body. The figures are then taken away from the house of the patient and are thrown into a canyon where airs are believed to live, or the figures are taken to the forest "on the west side of a mountain so that the sun god will take the airs on his journey to the underworld" (Dow 2001:86). Follensbee (2000:83) notes from the study by the Sandstroms (Sandstrom and Sandstrom 1986:35-267) that the Otomí figures are either torn or destroyed at the end of a ritual. Dow 128

147 a b c Figure Examples of Otomí Cutout Figures: a) Earth Mother Nature, b) Bird Intermediary, c) Spirit of Maize Fertility (from U.Missouri Exhibit 2003, photos by Daniel Glover and Charmagne Thompson) 129

148 (2001:75, 82, 85) notes that in addition to the Otomí, northern Nahua, Tepehua, Teenek, and Totonac peoples (all east of central Mexico) also use small anthropomorphic figures to represent animating forces during rituals. Tied to the cleaning ritual is a ritual to restore a person's animating force that may have been lost or stolen. The Otomí shaman makes a white paper figure representing a person's animating force surrounded by the person's companion spirit animals (Dow 2001:83). The shaman then looks for the animating force, by sending out his or her companion spirit animal to the supernatural realms to retrieve the lost force, and sometimes to battle with other companion spirit animals that have stolen the animating force. Among the Cora, who live west of central Mexico, the shamans enter into a trance and try to contact the gods in the supernatural realms to restore the animating force (Dow 2001:83). The Q'eqchi' of Guatemala also perform a ritual for individuals who have been separated from their animating spirit (Case et al. 2003:194, Wilson 1995). They make anthropomorphic figures made of "pom" or copal incense, which become "sil", meaning gift or offering (Case et al. 2003:194, Coggins and Ladd 1992, Lounsbury 1973). The Q'eqchi' believe that a person can become separated from their animating force near a river or spring. During the ritual, the shaman burns copal incense and candles at the edge of the water, offers prayers to the deities, and calls out to the afflicted person's animating force. The shaman then offers the figure as a replacement, "A substitute (reqaj) for the person is left at the edge of the water as an offering to the tzuultaq'as. This is called a muñeek, or doll, and it is fashioned from pom and beeswax into a human form. The patient's hair and fingernail and toenail clippings are stuck into the doll. After the calling and prayers, the doll is burned" (Wilson 1995). The Otomí have ceremonies to worship local deities called "antiguas" and their principal gods (Dow 2001:91). The "antiguas" are represented by small family images. The names of the Otomí principal gods demonstrate a continuity of beliefs in deities from early Mesoamerican times. The names include Goddess of the Fresh Water, Grandfather Fire, Intercessor God, and Earth God (Dow 2001:91). Community rituals are conducted by shamans but are sponsored by the community or by a single household. These community rituals include festivals (perhaps to mark the beginning or end of a cycle), which most likely involved feasting. Sandstrom (1991:300) documented a special ceremony in which over twenty Otomí and Nahua shamans 130

149 organized a pilgrimage to a sacred lake. Before making the pilgrimage, they made over twentyfive thousand paper figure cutouts as offerings. Discussion The study of gender depictions in Olmec imagery has demonstrated that the majority of the San Andrés figurines are female. Studies on feasting have demonstrated that the feasting ritual serves individuals and their communities in a number of ways, but in the most basic terms, feasts provide arenas for the creation and maintenance of social relationships. Evidence for feasting in household areas is present at San Andrés. The figurines associated with these contexts indicate their ritual use in household settings. Ethnohistorical and ethnographic accounts of later cultures of Mesoamerica place the use of figurines in household contexts, as well as in agricultural fields, or near sources of water. The ethnographic data on modern indigenous cultures in Central America provides a significant key to understanding figurine function and use during Middle Formative times in Mesoamerica. In particular, the data on the Otomí Indians and neighboring cultures east of central Mexico, as well as the data on the Q'eqchi' Indians of Guatemala, document modern practices of shamanistic and animistic traditions that were part of Mesoamerican world views of the past. The figures used for healing and worship demonstrate a belief in animating forces and the shamans ability to interact with them. If earlier peoples of Mesoamerica, such as the inhabitants at San Andrés, believed in animistic forces existing in various levels and realms of the universe (see Chapter 5), then perhaps the figurines were used to represent these animating forces. The ethnographic records, although separated in time and space from earlier cultures, provide key information for creating analogies to the past. Particularly when material evidence of past cultures links them to later cultures in surrounding regions, the ethnographic records become tools for making additional connections. Beyond the gender and context of the San Andrés figurines, and taking into account the use of figurines in the ethnographic record, one is left to examine the meaning behind these 131

150 representational forms. Why were they made? Why do they represent what they do? The workings of mimesis play a role in understanding the representational nature of the figurines. The ability to copy something and draw power from the copy is the magic of mimesis. Mimetic magic occurs when the "reproduction of life merges with the recapture of the soul" (Taussig 1993:2). To capture the spirit of something was the aim in making the San Andrés figurines. These representational forms may have served to physically embody the animating forces with which the inhabitants tried to communicate. In making these embodiments, individuals desired to gain control over what was represented, and thus have power over the animating force. Taussig (1993:13) further illustrates this point by referring to Nordenskiold (1929), who studied the Chocó Indians of Panama, "In some way or another one can protect oneself from evil spirits by portraying them." Thus, I propose that the San Andrés figurines served as representations of animating forces with which the people communicated during various occasions including rituals for healing, rituals for pregnancy and childbirth, and worshipping ceremonies. At San Andrés, some figurines may have represented intrusive forces that had stolen or taken over an individual's animating force, particularly those that appear sick (Unit 1, Feature 9). A healer may have conducted a curing ceremony in which figurines were used to call forth or draw out the animating forces in the afflicted individual. Perhaps the ritual destruction of figurines was to end the power of intrusive forces over the afflicted individuals, or to prevent the animating forces from bringing harm to those who had called upon them. The duck bill associated with the three "sick" figurine heads may have been ritual paraphernalia used by the healer. The healer may have captured his or her companion spirit, or the animating spirit of the duck, who aided in the healing ritual. The dwarf figurine, also associated with the "sick" figurine heads, may have been a representation of the animating force of an intercessor god called on to aid the healer in the ritual. The San Andrés female figurines may indicate their use during times of pregnancy and childbirth. Follensbee (2000:83, 87) mentions that pregnancy and childbirth were considered illnesses in Hueyapan, Morelos (Alvarez 1980:10-12) and among traditional Colombian peoples (Reichel-Dolmatoff 1961: ), and that petitioning for a safe pregnancy was crucial. Particularly during the first three months of pregnancy, when hormonal changes begin to occur, some women may experience "morning sickness" or nausea and vomiting related to pregnancy 132

151 that cause women to feel physically ill throughout the day and night (the term "morning" is a misnomer). During this initial phase of pregnancy, a woman's body does not yet show a growing abdomen. The female torsos may have portrayed the animating forces of individual women at San Andrés. Their predominant forms might signify various situations. They may have represented the animating forces of individuals wishing to become pregnant. They may have represented animating forces of pregnant individuals requesting a successful pregnancy and childbirth. Another situation is that the predominantly female figurines portrayed the animating forces of sick women. Another scenario is that the figurines were embodiments of a particular female deity related to pregnancy and childbirth. If this were the case, why do the figurines not appear more stylized and less individualistic? The workings of mimesis come into play again. Taussig states that mimesis is the art of becoming something else, of becoming Other (Taussig 1993:36). This ability to change into Other "allows for and indeed creates the 'mimetic slippage' whereby reproduction jumps to metamorphosis, whereby the duplicating power of spirit (image) is also a self-transforming power - and hence a power for healing and for evil, transforming Being itself" (Taussig 1993:126). In other words, the power of the copy lies in its ability to copy something, to transform itself, which enables it to transform the original form. The figurine, as the copy of an animating force, has this transforming power to become something else, perhaps to take on the power of the deity, to become the deity itself. The San Andrés female figurines may represent the animating forces of individuals who are requesting the procreative powers of the deity to aid them in conception, or during pregnancy and childbirth, and through the power of the figurines or the making of them, the deity comes through in these images. Some of the San Andrés figurines may have portrayed the animating forces of ancestors or deities during worshipping ceremonies, to whom the people offered supplications and petitioned for the health and prosperity of the members of the household or community. The figurines could offer a means to communicate with these personages because they embodied or captured the animate forces of the supernatural beings that would otherwise occupy a different realm of the universe. Other figurines may have been to replicate the animating forces of deities, and thus to replicate and partake of the powers that they possessed. The figures may have had a similar function to masks from the Formative period, particularly those representing gods, 133

152 through which individuals acquired their power, "Wearing the mask of a god temporarily transformed the individual into the deity and invested him with supernatural power and authority" (Parsons et al. 1988:36). In some instances, such as figurines from the feasting midden in Units 7 and 8, the figurines may have been used to depict ritual scenes of historic or mythological events, and in the process, to reenact such events. The historic events might have involved period-ending ceremonies, such as that suggested by Ekholm (1979), during which time animating forces were called upon and worshipped. Mythological events such as the creation of humans involved the constructive forces of deities. The San Andrés inhabitants may have tried to invoke the power of the deities through reenacting these events. Feasts provided arenas for accentuating or easing the rites of passage (DeBoer 2001:230). Junker (2001:273-4) states from a study of ethnohistoric accounts of prehispanic chiefdoms in the Philippines that "animal sacrifice and consumption by the feast's participants was aimed at warding off afflicting spirits who were seen as attempting to prevent the passage of individuals through critical life stages (i.e., birth, marriage, death), who were causing illness in an individual, or who were likely to prevent the successful completion of community endeavors." The San Andrés figurines may have been used during feasting rituals for individuals requesting aid. Junker suggests that the malevolent spirits may have been ancestors, and the appropriate sacrifices had to be offered in order to appease them or prevent future harm. The sacrifice of particular animals, who were seen as intermediaries between the living and spirit worlds, offered the life or "vitality" of the animal in exchange for the prosperous life of the people involved. The consumption of the animals imparted that vitality to those individuals taking part, which in turn offered supernatural protection. The San Andrés figurines associated with the feasting contexts may have been used during rituals involving supplications and offerings to deities or ancestors. The use of zoomorphic figures at San Andrés may have been to call upon the supernatural powers that these animals were considered to possess. They may have represented the animating forces of animal counterparts of individuals to aid or guide them during healing or worshipping ceremonies. The animals also may have functioned as ritual offerings to deities or ancestors. The abundant presence of figurines in household areas indicates a ritual use that may have been more frequent (as opposed to the large, public ceremonies at the centers), and more 134

153 private, involving the nuclear family and their kin and neighbors. The predominance of female images suggests a basic concern with women's health, most likely regarding reproductive success, and thus a concern with ensuring productive success and continuity for the household and community. The studies on figurine gender and context at San Andrés, combined with ethnohistoric and ethnographic materials, suggest that figurine use involved various occasions. One occasion may have been for ritual activities to ensure productive and reproductive success. Another occasion may have been for healing ceremonies. Another occasion for using figurines might have been to offer supplications to forces in the supernatural realms, perhaps during period ending rites. This chapter began with the suggestion that the San Andrés figurines were symbols of fertility and production. The idea that the figurines portrayed abstract ideals such as "fertility" or "production" produces an incomplete picture however. A more suitable explanation for figurine use is that the San Andrés figurines represented particular entities, forces, or personages to which the people called upon, prayed, or made offerings, in order to aid the household in production, reproduction, or health. The figurines took on the power, not of generalized ideals, but of distinct animate forces with whom the people at San Andrés wanted to communicate. Through the workings of mimesis, these ceramic images functioned as a tangible means to interact with the supernatural realm and to draw power from, or control, the animating forces within it. 135

154 CHAPTER 8 SUMMARY "Truly now, double thanks, triple thanks that we've been formed, we've been given our mouths, our faces, we speak, we listen, we wonder, we move, our knowledge is good, we've understood what is far and near and we've seen what is great and small under the sky, on the earth. Thanks to you we've been formed, we've come to be made and modeled, our grandmother, our grandfather." Popol Vuh, The Mayan Book of the Dawn of Life Translated by Dennis Tedlock, 1996:147 The passage above is a translation from the Popol Vuh, a sacred book written shortly after the Spanish Conquest, that was translated from Quiché Maya (from Guatemala) into Spanish by Father Francisco Ximénez in the beginning of the eighteenth century (Goetz and Morley 1950). The book was sacred in that it contained the origin and creation stories, as well as the ancient traditions of the Maya. The passage recounts the creation of humans made of cornmeal dough, after imperfect creations made of clay and wood previously had been destroyed. The Creator and Maker gods made the humans to venerate and sustain the gods. The humans made of corn were perfect in that they were all-knowing and all-seeing. They praised the gods for their creation. The gods were not pleased that the knowledge and the vision of humans was equal to themselves, however, and they blew mist into the humans' eyes so that they could only see what was near to them (Goetz and Morley 1950:169). Thus the Maya ancestors were created. This passage seems fitting because it might demonstrate a belief in the significance of the act of making figures in Mesoamerica, as an activity that began with the gods, and through this activity, humans themselves could acquire the power of the gods. In addition, this passage relates to the goals of this thesis by making references to the making and modeling of human forms (figurine manufacture), and references to humans communicating with animate 136

155 forces in the supernatural realm (figurine function). The San Andrés ceramic figurines provide clues to human behavior on the outskirts of the major Middle Formative period center of La Venta. The importance of figurines, in general, lies in the fact that they are representational in nature. They can be representative of social relationships between genders, different age groups, and possibly different social rankings within the area in which they were found. They can be representative of a community's means by which to communicate with the supernatural realm. At San Andrés, the context of the ceramic figurines suggests they were sometimes used during feasting rituals, which may have involved various occasions including healing ceremonies, rituals involving pregnancy and childbirth, and worshipping ceremonies such as period ending rites (Ekholm 1979). Most of the San Andrés figurine torsos are female, many of them appearing to be of reproductive age. Many of them wear round pendants that may represent mirrors, and some wear earspools, turbans and head ornamentation, all of which were symbols of status in Formative period Mesoamerica. The figurines were made with some planning and preparation for a specific ritual activity. Thus, the purpose of the figurines involved a more formal situation as opposed to a casual one. In some cases, the figurines were found associated with large serving vessels used not for daily purposes but for special occasions, as in Units 7 and 8 feasting refuse. Some imported materials such as greenstone, serpentine, and obsidian were found in association with the figurines. These special items may have been acquired through gift-giving associated with feasting. The San Andrés figurines resemble La Venta figurines, indicating a close tie with the La Venta polity. The figurine-makers at San Andrés used the local clays that were used for pottery production, demonstrating that the figurines were local to the site and not of foreign origin. The broken, fragmentary occurrence of the figurines, along with the nature of the breakage areas, suggests that the people who used them may have ritually broken them before disposal. The figurines at San Andrés emerged from special ritual deposits in household areas, demonstrating that figurine-use was intended for the living rather than the deceased, although burials were not found at San Andrés. 137

156 Figurine Manufacture The San Andrés figurine collection includes 306 fragments, all of which are incomplete with the exception of one small dwarf or infant figurine. The figurines occur in the Early Formative Molina phase ( B.C.) and throughout the phases of the Middle Formative period, reaching a peak during the Early Franco phase ( /500 B.C.) with 178 fragments, or 58 percent of the total collection. Eighty-nine percent of the torsos are female, and 77 percent of the complete figurine heads are female. The figurine torsos were manufactured in either one of two positions: standing or seated. Each of the figurine heads were unique but were constructed using one of three techniques: punctations, incisions (sometimes with appliqué elements), or modeling. The use of punctations occurs in the Early Franco phase while the use of incisions is found throughout the Early Puente, Late Puente, and Early Franco phases. The technique of modeling occurs later in time during the Early and Late Franco phases. Warren Barbour's analysis on fingerprints from four San Andrés figurines indicates that all four fingerprints were most likely female. This finding suggests that women probably manufactured the San Andrés figurines. The significance in such an analysis is that it contributes to more understanding on what women's work may have included during the Formative period. The clays for figurine manufacture were local clays that were also used for constructing the pottery. The use of clays yielding white or light colors for figurine-making increased dramatically during the Early Franco, signifying an increase in availability of these clays or an increase in preference for these colors. The use of clays yielding red colors steadily increases over time reaching a peak in the Late Franco, while the use of white clays decreases significantly at the same time. Approximately 99 percent of the figurines were fired. The majority of them were incompletely fired, which meant that they were fired for short periods and at low temperatures. The majority of the figurines are of solid composition (approximately 86 percent). They occur from the Molina phase and onwards. Hollow figurines begin to appear in the Late Puente phase and occur through the Late Franco phase. The number of hollow figurines is smaller perhaps due to their later occurrence in time, they may have been more difficult to construct, or they may 138

157 have been used only for rare occasions. The figurines were manufactured in three relative sizes: large, medium, and small. Approximately 89 percent of the figurines are medium in size, all of which are solid. The large figurines tend to be mostly hollow fragments and occur less frequently throughout time. Based on Follensbee's (2000) gender descriptions for Olmec imagery, almost ninety percent of the San Andrés figurines are female. The female torsos at San Andrés wear simple clothing, such as low slung pubic coverings or aprons. Female figurine heads, which comprise approximately seventy-seven percent of the heads, wear their hair in buns on top or on the sides of their heads. They may also have hair close to their heads creating an inverted U shape around their faces, or they may have ponytails on the backs of their heads. Some wear turbans folded on top of their heads and wrapped under their chins, or some may wear close-fitting helmets. Male figurine characteristics include geometrical body shapes. The San Andrés male figurines wear thick belts high on the waist, loincloths that wrap under the crotch, and vest-like shirts. Male heads may wear helmets with elaborate decoration on top, or have tonsured areas. The ornamentation on San Andrés figurines include round pendants worn on the chest, earspools, and shells or other ornaments worn on the forehead or on top of the head. In addition to the anthropomorphic figurines at San Andrés, zoomorphic figurines were also manufactured from the Molina phase up to the Late Franco phase. Ten animal figurines are present in the collection; seven are birds, one is a possible jaguar, another may be a bat, and another figure is possibly a paca. The depiction of birds is common in Mesoamerica because they were considered special animals that could inhabit the three realms of sky, land, and water. Jaguars were also special animals in Mesoamerica because they were considered to have inherent supernatural powers. The people of high status associated themselves with the jaguar image. The presence of the animal figures in the San Andrés collection suggests an appreciation and respect for these creatures of nature and a belief in their having special powers beyond the natural realm. 139

158 Formative Period Figurines in Mesoamerica A comparison of Formative period figurines helped to demonstrate that San Andrés had close ties to the La Venta polity. The similarities of the figurine collections to each other shows that a strong link existed between the two sites. The similarities of the figurines from Chiapa de Corzo also revealed a link with San Andrés, further supporting the fact that San Andrés participated in an exchange network that extended along the Grijalva River. A comparison of figurines from the Pacific Coast suggests that a continuity of beliefs, ideas, and practices during the Early Formative was carried over into the Middle Formative period. Overall, the comparison of Formative period figurines reveals that Middle Formative figurines occur in household spaces, and the majority of the figurines are female figures. The ethnohistoric and ethnographic records on later cultures of Central America provide key information on figurine use. In particular, the ethnographic accounts on the Otomí of Mexico and the Q'eqchi' of Guatemala document how figures functioned during ritual activities. The Otomí shamans constructed paper figures to represent the animating forces of living things. The figures were used during healing rituals to draw out illnesses from afflicted individuals, or to replace the lost spirits of individuals The Otomí also used human images to represent ancestors and deities, to whom they made offerings of worship during festivals. The Q'eqchi' made anthropomorphic figures made of copal and beeswax. The shamans offered them to supernatural beings as substitutes for animating forces that had become separated from their human counterparts. The capacity to replicate something in order to derive power from it is the process of mimesis. I argue that the function of the San Andrés figurines can be understood through this process, combined with the gender and contextual information, and the ethnographic information. The combination of these factors suggests that the San Andrés figurines were used during various ritual activities conducted in household areas during the Middle Formative period. Furthermore, I propose that the figurines were used to copy and embody particular forces or entities with whom the San Andrés inhabitants wished to communicate. The figurines provided a means to interact with forces in the supernatural realm, where they offered supplications and requested aid. 140

159 The San Andrés figurines are significant because they offer clues as to specific activities that occurred at this site. The figurines signify that feasting and ritual activities occurred, and these activities probably involved elite members of the community. The study of the San Andrés figurines is significant in that it demonstrates ritual behavior at household spaces outside of the La Venta center, and it contributes to the knowledge of Middle Formative figurine use in Mesoamerica. 141

160 APPENDIX A CATALOGUE OF SAN ANDRÉS CERAMIC FIGURINES 142

161 This catalogue describes each of the figurine heads, torsos, and animals. A general description and examples of limb fragments are also provided. For each image of heads, torsos or animals, the following information is given: 1.) Identification code - This code is for my tally of the numbers of the figurine parts and to provide a unique identification designation for each figurine specimen. Each identification code begins with a letter followed by a number. The letters represent the following: H=Head, T=Torso, L=Limb, A=Animal, and U=Unidentifiable. 2.) Provenience - Unit/Level or Feature 3.) FS # = Field Specimen number 4.) Unit, Level, Depth 5.) Feature number (if applicable) 6.) Dimensions: L=Length, W=Width, T=Thickness 7.) Munsell color code and color description 8.) Ceramic phase 143

162 Molina Phase ( BC) Six figurine fragments emerged from the Molina levels, roughly 2 percent of the San Andrés figurine assemblage. One completely fired limb fragment (L-135), possibly an arm, was found in Unit 8 in dark silty clay. It is solid with a light gray color (10YR 7/2). A lower leg fragment with a foot (L-136) was found in association with this limb fragment. The leg fragment is solid and is almost completely fired. Its color is a pinkish gray (7.5YR 7/2). Another fragment, U-29, was found in a Molina level mixed with some Early Puente materials. U-29 is a solid, almost completely fired fragment with a pinkish gray color (7.5YR 6/2). Two fragments (U-39 and L-173) were found in the deep levels of Unit 1. They are associated with Feature 18, from which fragments of a burned tecomate and squash seeds were recovered. One of the two fragments, L-173, is a figurine leg that appears to have folds of skin (Figure A.1). The fleshiness and proportions of the leg suggest that it may be that of an infant. L-173 U1/37 FS#: 897 Unit 1, Level 37, cmbd 5 cm (L), 3.2 cm (W) Molina Phase Figure A.1 - Figure L-173, Molina Phase figurine leg, various views. Photos by Christopher von Nagy (left) and Allison Perrett (center and right) 144

163 A-10 U7/F5-16 FS#: 524 Unit 7, cmbd Feature cm (L), 1.7 cm (W), 1.9 cm (T) 10YR 7/2, light gray Molina Phase Figure A.2 - Figurine A-10, Molina Phase animal fragment, top and profile views The sixth figurine fragment, A-10, (Figure A.2) from the Molina levels is a solid animal fragment from Unit 7, Feature 5. It is a bird beak with the left eye still attached and two shallow punctations on the top of the beak. The eye is a round pellet appliqué with a slit in the center. It was incompletely fired with a fine sand temper. 145

164 Early Puente Phase ( BC) The Early Puente levels yielded 7 figurine fragments, which include 1 head fragment, 2 torsos, and 4 limb fragments. These fragments account for about two percent of the total number of figurines. Early Puente Head H-14 U1/F12ext. FS #: 686 Unit 1, cmbd Feature 12 extension 2.6 cm (L), 2.4 cm (W), 1.5 cm (T) 7.5YR 7.5/2, pinkish white Early Puente Phase Figure A.3 - Figurine H-14, Early Puente Phase face fragment A face fragment, Figurine H-14, was found in the Early Puente levels of Unit 1. The fragment is solid and incompletely fired with a fine sand temper. The bottom half of the face is present, with a small, round chin. The nose is triangular in shape and raised with punctated nostrils. The mouth has a subtle line to indicate the top lip with a bottom lip protruding out. The corners of the mouth are punctated. A partial right eye is present (the inner half only) indicated by a slit. The gender is indeterminable because the top and sides of the head are not present to indicate garments or ornamentation. 146

165 Early Puente Torsos T-08 U 1-S/18 FS #: 456 Unit 1-S, Level 18, cmbd 4.2 cm(l), 5.0 cm (W), 1.6 cm (T) 7.5YR 7/4, pink Early Puente Phase Figure A.4 - Figurine T-08, Early Puente Phase figurine torso Torso T-08 is a solid fragment of the top half of a torso. Although breasts are minimally apparent, the torso is pinched high in the waist, indicating that it is most likely female (see Chapter 3 on gender). A shallow incision is present on the left side to indicate a nipple, with a faint incision evident on the right side. A round appliqué is present on the chest to indicate a pendant, most likely a mirror (see Chapter 3, Figure 3.8). It is incompletely fired and has a fine sand temper. 147

166 T-31 U7/10 FS#: 432 Unit 7, Level 10, cmbd 8.2 cm (L), 4.5 cm (W), 2.6 (T) 10YR 6/2, light brownish gray Early Puente Phase Figure A.5 - Figurine T-31, Early Puente figurine torso, frontal and dorsal views respectively The other Early Puente torso, T-31, is also a female torso and is one of the more complete torsos in the entire San Andrés collection. Figurine T-31 emerged from Level 10 of Unit 7, which is a level with Early Puente materials mixed with some Late Puente materials. The right shoulder and both thighs are present. This particular torso has full breasts with no nipples indicated. The navel is made with a large and deep punctation. An incised vertical line, representing the linea gris or gray line (Guillén, 1993:213), runs along the middle of the abdomen and through the navel. The linea gris is usually an indication of a woman having given birth. During pregnancy, the line (called the linea nigra - Eisenberg et al. 1991:178) becomes darker due to hormonal changes in the body, particularly in women with darker complexions. After pregnancy, the color of the line usually fades to a light gray. Thus, figurine T-31 may represent a woman who has given birth. Below an incised horizontal line on the lower abdominal area, a pubic "Y" or triangle is present. The waist is pinched below the breasts. On the back of the torso, a vertical groove is present in between fairly developed buttocks. The torso has a fine sand temper and is incompletely fired. The remaining Early Puente fragments (L-44, L-49, L-53, and L-167) are limb fragments. Three fragments are solid, incompletely fired, and are tempered with fine sand. L-44 is pink (5YR 7/4), along with L-49 (5YR 7.5/4), and L-53 is reddish yellow (5YR 6/6) in color. The fourth limb fragment (L-167) has not been analyzed. 148

167 Late Puente Phase ( BC) Forty-four figurine fragments emerged from the Late Puente levels. The fragments consisted of the following: 5 heads, 3 torsos, 27 limbs, 2 animal fragments, and 7 unidentifiable fragments (U-11 to U-15 and U-32). The Late Puente figurines are roughly fourteen percent of the total figurine collection at San Andrés. Late Puente Heads H-10 U1/North Side FS #: 350 Unit 1, "Ceramic Midden" 7.2 cm (L), 5.0 cm (W), cm (T) 7.5YR 6/4, light brown Late Puente Phase Figure A.6 - Figurine H-10, Late Puente Phase figurine ear fragment Figurine H-10 is a head fragment of an ear and partial neck. The fragment is from a hollow figurine, incompletely fired, and with a fine sand temper. The ear is realistic showing the cartilaginous detail and circular structures of the human ear. A punctation on the earlobe is present. 149

168 H-11 U1-N/F9 FS #: 491 Unit 1-North, cmbd Feature cm (L), 2.4 cm (W), 2.8 cm (T) 10YR 7.5/2, light gray Late Puente Phase a b c Figure A.7 - Figurine H-11, Late Puente Phase figurine head: a.) front b.) left side, c.) top view Figurine H-11 is from Feature 9 of Unit 1. The head is solid with a fine sand temper and is incompletely fired. The left side of figurine H-11 is broken off, but the rest of the head appears to have indications of hair, and a bun sits on the top right side marked with striations. Because of the hairstyle, this head is probably female. The back is undeveloped. The shape of the face is round with full cheeks. The forehead has a lump and the brow ridge is distinct, giving this particular figure an appearance of illness or injury. These characteristics, which are not present in the figurines at La Venta, are unique to the San Andrés collection. The right eye is slit in an oval shape, making the eye appear swollen or closed with the eyelid exposed. The left eye is a simple slit and also appears swollen or injured. The nose has a distinct bridge with the right nostril present. The mouth is incised and downturned, with the lower left side broken off. Ears or adornments such as earspools or beads are absent. 150

169 H-12 U1-N/F9 FS #: 510 Unit 1-North, 218 cmbd Feature cm (L), 2.3 cm (W), cm (T) 5YR 7/4, pink Late Puente Phase Figure A.8 - Figurine H-12, Late Puente Phase figurine head Figurine H-12 was also found in Feature 9 on the northern half of Unit 1. Another head (Figurine H-13) and an arm fragment were found in association with this head. Figurine H-12 is solid, has a fine sand temper, and is incompletely fired. The head has an inverted U shape framing the face, which may indicate the hairline. Or it may be wearing a turban with ornamentation, possibly a shell, jewel or mirror, in the forehead area. These characteristics may indicate that this is a female head. The face is oblong with a slightly pointed chin. The ears have two punctations, the nose is raised with lightly punctated nostrils, and the mouth is incised downwards. The eyes are incised into an oval shape with no pupils. Two ridges above the upper eye area are present. The shell or bead ornament on the turban has horizontal striations on it. This head is similar to one from La Venta (Drucker 1952: Plate 28-g). 151

170 H-13 U1-N/F9 FS #: 510 Unit 1-North, 218 cmbd Feature cm (L), 1.9 cm (W), 1.8 cm (T) 7.5YR 7/4, pink (light brown) Late Puente Phase Figure A.9 - Figurine H-13, Late Puente Phase figurine head Figurine H-13 was found in association with Figurine H-12. It is unlike any of the other heads at San Andrés because it is unfired, has no temper, and is crudely made. The lack of temper in the clay caused this figurine to crack while it was drying after excavation. Indications of hair or head garments are absent, which makes its gender indeterminable. The shape of the face and the facial characteristics appear distorted. The nose is wide and flattened and the lips are thick, almost swollen-looking. The asymmetrical eyes are slit horizontally but at a slight angle. The overall appearance of this figurine gives the impression of an injured or deformed individual. A fingerprint was found on the bottom of the head, which Warren Barbour has identified as a female fingerprint (personal communication, 2000). 152

171 H-15 U3/11 FS #: 852 Unit 3, Level 11, cmbd 3.1 cm (L), 2.8 cm (W), 2.4 cm (T) 7.5YR 5/2, brown Late Puente Phase Figure A.10 - Figurine H-15, Late Puente Phase figurine head Figurine H-15 is the only head found in Unit 3. It was found in dark gray clay of Level 11. It is solid with reburned firing and has a fine sand temper. The color is brown in the face with a mottled pinkish gray and light brown at the top of the head (7.5YR 6/2 and 6/4). Vertical striations present on the top of the head may indicate hair. A band goes across the top of the forehead but is broken off on the left side. A possible bun or large earspool is present on the right side. These characteristics most likely indicate that this is a female head. The back of the head is flat. Figurine T-07 (see Figure A.11) shares this characteristic with H-15, as well as having similar facial details. The left side of H-15 may have had a bun or earspool that broke off. The face is round with a small chin. The nose is triangular in shape and is slightly raised. The mouth is open with a deep incision, and the eyes are horizontally slit. The open mouth may indicate that the person depicted is singing or speaking. This figurine was found with an ocarina in the shape of a bird (A-05, see Figure A.15), and turtle shell refuse, some of which might have been used as drums. 153

172 Late Puente Torsos T-07 U1-N/F9 FS #: 452 Unit 1-North Feature cm (L) cm (W) cm (T) 5YR 8/3, pink Late Puente Phase Figure A.11 - Figurine T-07, Late Puente Phase figurine, frontal and dorsal views Figurine T-07 is unique in that it is the only complete figurine in the San Andrés collection. It is one of the smallest figurines in the collection as well. Because of its small size, the details are minimally indicated on its head and torso. It appears infantlike with stubby arms and seated with the right leg folded in front, or it may be a dwarf. The back of the torso has a vertical slit to indicate the cleft of the buttocks. A round clump, possibly a bun or ear spool similar to that on H-15 (see Figure A.10), is present on the left side of the head. The face is outlined with an inverted U shape, which may be indicative of hair. The face is round with punctations for the eyes and mouth. A subtle bump is present for the nose. Its facial features and bun or earspool detail are similar to those of Figurine H-15 (Figure A.10), whose hairstyle is probably female. Other than the head characteristics, the gender is indeterminable. It is solid, of a fine sand temper and may not be completely fired. Small figurines like T-07 are present at Chiapa de Corzo and known as the I-Chiapa-A8 variety (Lee 1969:17). Like figurine T-07, these figurines have "round fillets of clay " on the side of the head that may be earplugs. 154

173 T-09 and T-10 U5/F4-6 FS #: 108 Unit 5, cmbd Feature 4-6 Late Puente Phase T-09: 6.2 cm (L), cm (W), cm (T) 7.5YR 7/4, pink T-10: 6.7 cm (L), cm (W), cm (T) 7.5YR 7/4, pink Figure A.12 - Figurine fragments T-09 and T-10 respectively, Late Puente Phase figurine torso Figurine fragments T-09 and T-10 make up an upper torso. Both halves have subtle breasts with punctated nipples. Although the waist does not appear constricted, the figurine is most likely female due to the presence of breasts. The torso has a medium sand temper and is incompletely fired. The surface is cracked throughout and crumbles easily. The back of the torso contains a light brown color (7.5YR 6.5/2, pinkish gray) differing from the color of the rest of the torso. 155

174 Late Puente Limbs Twenty-seven limb fragments were found in the Late Puente levels. With the exception of three fragments not analyzed (L-168 to L-170), the Late Puente limb fragments consist of the following: 8 leg fragments (L-26, L-32, L-50, L-55, L-61, L- 65, L-134, L-154), 7 arm fragments (L-46, L-51, L-52, L-59, L-60, L-64, L-155), 2 hand fragments (L-58 and L-63), and 7 undetermined fragments (L-27, L-45, L-47, L- 48, L-56, L-57, L-62). A fingerprint was present close to the top edge of leg fragment L-134. Warren Barbour's analysis of the fingerprint indicates that it most likely belonged to a female (personal communication, 2000). The twenty-four analyzed limb fragments are solid. An example of a Late Puente limb fragment is pictured in Figure A.13 below. Most of the limbs are incompletely fired with the exception of two undetermined limb fragments that appear to be completely fired and one undetermined fragment that is not fired. The majority of the limbs have a fine sand temper. The colors of the Late Puente limbs range from pinkish white and light gray to pink, light brown, and reddish yellow. The sizes of the limbs are relatively small ( cm in length, cm in thickness). L-60 U3/9 FS #: 829 Unit 3, Level 9, cmbd 4.1 cm (L), 1.7 cm (W), 1.7 cm (T) 5YR 7/4, pink Late Puente Phase Figure A.13 - Figurine L-60, Late Puente Phase figurine arm 156

175 Late Puente Animal Figures A-04 U1-N/F9 FS #: 450 Unit 1-North Feature 9 Late Puente Phase (dimensions and color not analyzed) Figure A.14 - Figurine A-04, Late Puente Phase duck bill Photos by Mary Pohl Two animal figurines are from the Late Puente levels. Both of the figurines appear to be of birds. Figurine A-04 is possibly a duck beak with a solid composition. A straight incision is present along the center of the beak and close to the sides, with a wavy incision on either side of the central incision. The beak is broken along the thickest edge and underside of the fragment. 157

176 A-05 U3/11 FS #: 838 Unit 3, Level 11, cmbd 5.6 cm (L), cm (W), cm (T) 5YR 6/8 with 7.5YR 7/6, reddish yellow Late Puente Phase Figure A.15 - Figurine A-05, Late Puente Phase animal figurine: Side view and bottom view respectively The other Late Puente animal figurine, A-05, is an ocarina or whistle in the shape of a bird. The head is absent. The hollow bird body sits with a folded right wing and a missing left wing. The wing and neck area has three striations each. A relatively large hole is present in the back end of the bird body accompanied by two smaller holes on either side of the central hole. The tail end has two incisions present. The ocarina is made with a fine volcanic ash temper. It was found in association with a figurine head (H-15) and with turtle shell that may have been used as drums. 158

177 Mixed Levels of Early & Late Puente/Early Franco Phases Unit 1 contained mixed materials at centimeters deep. The materials were of Early and Late Puente Phases mixed with Early Franco Phase materials. Seven figurine fragments were found in this level, consisting of 1 torso, 5 limb fragments, and 1 animal figurine. All of the figurines are solid in composition. Mixed Early & Late Puente/Early Franco Torso T-06 U1/11 FS #: 295 Unit 1, Level 11, cmbd 6.3 cm (L), cm (W), 2.2 cm (T) 5YR 7/3.5, pink Mixed Early & Late Puente/Early Franco Phases Figure A.16 - Figurine T-06, figurine torso from mixed Early & Late Puente/Early Franco Phases, frontal and dorsal views Figurine T-06 is a solid, lower torso fragment with the abdomen, left hip and upper thigh present. It has a fine sand temper. The fragment appears to be female due to the constricted waist, the flaring of the left hip, and the subtle horizontal line below the navel, which may be indicative of a low-slung garment. Another indicator of female gender is present in the back of this torso, where a tie or string hangs down. This is indicative of an apron or pubic covering, which are garments worn by females. 159

178 Mixed Early & Late Puente/Early Franco Limbs Five limb fragments were found in the mixed Early and Late Puente and Early Franco levels of Unit 1 (Level 11). An example is Figure A.17 below. All of the limbs appear relatively light in color: three are pink (L-038, L-039, L-041), and two are pinkish white (L-037 and L-040). One fragment (L-040) has spots of a reddish yellow color (5YR 7/6). All five limbs are solid, made of a fine sand temper and are incompletely fired. Three appear to be leg fragments. The other two limb fragments are undetermined. Lengths range from 1.8 cm to 4.6 cm. The thickness of the limbs range from 0.9 cm to 2.5 cm. L-037 U1/11 FS #: 295 Unit 1, Level 11, cmbd 4.6 cm (L), cm (W), cm (T) 5YR 8/2, pinkish white Mixed Early & Late Puente/ Early Franco Phases Figure A.17 - Figurine L-037, figurine limb from mixed Early & Late Puente/ Early Franco Phases 160

179 Mixed Early & Late Puente/Early Franco Animal Figure A-03 U1/11 FS #: 295 Unit 1, Level 11, cmbd 2.6 cm (L), 2.1 cm (W), cm (T) 5YR 8/2, pinkish white Mixed Early & Late Puente/ Early Franco Phases Figure A.18 - Figurine A-03, animal figurine from mixed Early & Late Puente/Early Franco Phases One animal figurine, A-03, is from Level 11 of Unit 1. It appears bird-like and may represent the Ferruginous pygmy owl, which inhabits river woodlands, forest edges, and second growth (Peterson and Chalif 1973, Beletsky 1999). It is active during the day and may be seen around the entrances to caves (Pohl - personal communication, 2003). A beak may have once been present but has broken off. The top of the head is broken and is darker in color than the rest of the head. The eyes are simple slits encircled with a round incision. A fingerprint is present between the right eye and the base of the broken beak. According to Warren Barbour, the fingerprint is most likely that of a female (personal communication, 2000). The bird head is solid, incompletely fired, and made with a fine sand temper. 161

180 Mixed Levels of Late Puente/Early Franco Phases Two figurines are from levels with mixed materials of Late Puente and Early Franco Phases. More specifically, 1 head (H-05) and 1 limb fragment (L-166) emerged from Unit 1-Feature 1 and Unit 1-Feature 3. Mixed Late Puente/Early Franco Heads H-05 U1/F1-1b-2 FS #: 142 Unit 1, Level 2, cmbd Feature 1-1b cm (L), 2.2 cm (W), cm (T) 5YR 7/6, reddish yellow Mixed Late Puente/Early Franco Phases Figure A.19 - Figurine H-05, figurine head from mixed Late Puente/Early Franco Phases Figurine H-05 wears a tall turban, the base of which is clearly defined around the forehead area in an inverted U shape, which may indicate that this is a female head. The face is long and oval in shape with a pointed chin. This particular head is the only one in the collection with the nose and mouth area indicated by punctations. It resembles heads in Weiant's (1943: Plate 4 and 8) ceramic analysis of Tres Zapotes. The eyes are lightly slit with punctations, and the eyebrows are incised. The left side is broken off revealing a darker red core, which may indicate that it was reburned. 162

181 Early Franco Phase ( /500 BC) The figurines of the Early Franco Phase comprise the largest group in the San Andrés collection. Fifty-eight percent of the total number of figurines, or 178 fragments (including fragments from Unit 7-8 feasting refuse and sump pump salvage), emerged from the levels with Early Franco Phase materials. The figurines include: 25 heads, 33 torsos, 98 limb fragments, 4 animals, and 18 unidentifiable fragments (U-16, U-17, U-19 to U-28, U-30, U-34 to U-38). Objects from the Unit 7-8 feasting refuse refer to a slump in the walls of these units. The objects recovered are Early Franco Phase. The 24 figurine fragments from the feasting refuse make up about 8 percent of the total figurine collection and include: 4 heads, 8 torsos, and 12 limb fragments. Of the 178 Early Franco fragments, eight figurines (3 percent of the total collection) came out of the pump sump salvage. They include: 2 heads, 1 torso, and 5 limb fragments. One head and one limb fragment is hollow and the remainder of the figurines are solid. 163

182 Early Franco Heads Figurine H-16 U7/5 FS #: 173 Unit 7, Level 5, cmbd 4.0 cm (L), 2.8 cm (W), 2.9 cm (T) 10YR 6/1 and 6/2, gray and light brownish gray Early Franco Phase Figure A.20 - Figurine H-16, Early Franco Phase figurine head Figurine H-16 has possible hair or a close-fitting cap, with the left side broken off. The hairline may be indicated with an inverted U shape but the detail is faint. The hairline may indicate this head is female but the face shape is round with a square jaw, which gives it a male characteristic. The chin sticks out, and the nose has a triangular shape. The mouth is indicated by a faint slit with a square shape and thick lips. The eyes are horizontally slit, the left one at an angle. It is solid and tempered with mediumfine sand, and is incompletely fired. Figurine H-17 (not pictured) appears to be the top part of a head, possibly with hair that is indicated by vertical striations. It was found in Unit 7, Level 5 (PLCSAU7/5, FS# 173) at cm. It is solid, incompletely fired, and has a fine sand temper. The front of the head fragment has a dark gray color (10YR 4/1, dark gray), and the back has a light brown color (10YR 7/3, very pale brown). It is 1.9 cm tall, 2.5 cm wide, and cm thick. 164

183 H-18 U7/6 FS #: 205 Unit 7, Level 6 Gray midden 6.5 cm (L), cm (W), 2.5 cm (T) 10YR 7/2.5, very pale brown (light gray) Early Franco Phase Figure A.21 - Figurine H-18, Early Franco Phase figurine head, frontal and profile views Figurine H-18 is very distinct because of its long neck stem, large ear, and two nodules on either side of the head. The long neck stem or tenoned neck is like figurine H-36 and may have fit into a torso. The two lumps are similar to those found in figurines from the Mazatan region (Blake et al. 1995:170, Clark, 1991:21) during the Ocos phase ( B.C.) and Cherla phase ( B.C.). Clark states that the round shapes may represent mirrors that were parts of helmets or headdresses (p.20-21). Evidence of high status use of mirrors has been found in burials at El Vivero and Paso de la Amada in the Mazatan area, where a forehead mirror was present on the head. On the other hand, the two knobs may be buns, which are female characteristics found on Olmec images, such as a seated ceramic female figurine from La Venta (see Follensbee 2000:Figure 41). The head appears to be outlined on the top, which may indicate a hairline, or it may be wearing a hat instead. The shape of the face is oval. The left ear is realistically detailed with a cartilaginous interior. The nose is triangular and wide with punctated nostrils. The mouth is open with a thick lower lip. The eyes are incised in an oval shape with no pupils or eyeballs indicated. Figurine H-18 is solid, incompletely fired, and tempered with fine sand. 165

184 H-19 U7/F1B-6 FS #: 241 Unit 7 Feature 1B-6 Gray midden 5.1 cm (L), 3.2 cm (W), cm (T) 7.5YR 8/2, pinkish white Early Franco Phase Figure A.22 - Figurine H-19, Early Franco Phase figurine head Figurine H-19 is from the gray midden area of Feature 1B in Unit 7. It is solid with a fine sand temper and is incompletely fired. It may have been reburned. The head has either a tall turban or hair with vertical incisions, and may show head deformation. It has a round inverted U shape outlining the face, which may indicate that this is a female head. A small raised area sits below the hairline, in the middle of the forehead, which may be an ornament. The face shape is round with full cheeks and a small chin. The left ear is present, the nose is triangular with a thin bridge, and the mouth is incised in an upturned direction. The eyes are incised into an oval shape with no pupils indicated. A ridge is present above the upper eye area, and a slight brow ridge is present. Figurine H-20 (not pictured) is from Unit 7, Feature 1b-6 (PLCSAU7/F1b-6, FS# 241). It was found with figurine H-19 in the gray midden area at cmbd. Unfortunately, its face is eroded but the head retains its shape. The right side has what may have been an ear or earspool or a bun. The head is solid with a medium-fine sand temper, and is incompletely fired. Its color in the front is mottled light gray with brown (5YR 7/1 with 7.5YR 5/4), and is gray in the back (5YR 5/1) with spots of red (10R 4/8). Its length is 3.7 cm, with a width of 3.2 cm and a thickness of 2.0 cm. 166

185 H-21 U7/7 FS #: 258 Unit 7, Level 7, cmbd BGS clay 2.3 cm (L), 1.7 cm (W), 1.7 cm (T) 5YR 8/1, white Early Franco Phase Figure A.23 - Figurine H-21, Early Franco Phase figurine head Figurine H-21 (above) is smaller than most of the heads described thus far. It is incompletely fired with a fine sand temper and is solid. The head has a ridge or crest along the top of it, and has a round, inverted U shape framing its face, which are characteristics indicating a female head. The shape of the face is oval with a pointed chin. Ears or round circular earspools are present on both sides. The nose has a triangular shape, and a faint trace of a mouth is indicated by a slit. The eyes are horizontally slit. Figurine H-22 (not pictured) was found with another head (Figurine H-23) in Unit 7, Level 9 at cm (PLCSAU7/9, FS# 319). Figurine H-22 is small compared to most of the other figurine heads. It is 2.5 cm in length, cm in width, and cm in thickness. It is solid with a fine sand temper, and is almost completely fired with a light gray core. It has a light gray color overall (5YR 7.5/2). The head wears a tall, simple hat, slightly broken on the right side, and has a round inverted U shape framing the face, which may indicate that this is a female head. The face is round with the chin sticking out. The mouth is slit in a downturned position and no ears are present. The eyes are slit in a diagonal position. 167

186 H-23 U7/9 FS #: 319 Unit 7, Level 9, cmbd BGS clay 5.5 cm (L), cm (W), cm (T) 7.5YR 7/2, pinkish gray Early Franco Phase Figure A.24 - Figurine H-23, Early Franco Phase figurine head Figurine H-23 is similar to one from La Venta (Drucker 1952: Plate 37-c). It is also similar to Figurine H-12 (see Figure A.8) in that it also has a shell on the forehead area but with five round beads applied over it. The headdress is tall with a serrated band or ridge at the top. An inverted U shape frames the face. Together, these characteristics indicate that H-12 may be female. The face is oval, and the chin sticks out. Both ears are present with the right one broken. The right nostril of the nose is present, the mouth is open with vertical incisions on the sides and the lips are rectangular in shape. The eyes are the only ones of the Early Franco Phase that are indicated by simple punctations. The color is a mottled pinkish gray with some pinkish white (7.5YR 8/2). It is solid and incompletely fired with a fine sand temper. 168

187 H-24 U8/5 FS #: 337 Unit 8, Level 5, cmbd Brown midden 2.8 cm (L), cm (W), cm (T) 7.5YR 8/2, pinkish white Early Franco Phase Figure A.25 - Figurine H-24, Early Franco Phase figurine head Three heads (Figurines H-24, H-25, and H-26) were found together in Unit 8, Level 5 at cm. Figurine H-24 is solid with a medium-fine sand temper and incomplete firing. It wears a headdress with a crest over the top. It appears to have facial hair above the lips and on the chin. The head displays what are more likely earspools than ears because of the circular shape. The head garment, facial hair, and earspools are characteristics that indicate this is a male head. The face is round and the chin sticks out. The nose is wide and no nostrils are indicated. The mouth is slit in a downturned position, and the eyes are slit horizontally. Figurines T-17, T-18, L-115 to L-120, and U-22 were found associated with heads H-24 to H

188 H-25 U8/5 FS #: 337 Unit 8, Level 5, cmbd Brown midden 2.6 cm (L), cm (W), cm (T) 7.5YR 8/2, pinkish white Early Franco Phase Figure A.26 - Figurine H-25, Early Franco Phase figurine head Figurine H-25 is very similar to Figurine H-24 because of the similar size and style of the head, indicating that both heads were most likely made by the same maker. It is of a solid composition with a medium-fine sand temper and is incompletely fired. Like Figurine H-24, it also wears a headdress with a crest on top. Figurine H-25, however, has 2 circular knobs or ornaments on either side of the top of the head. Like H-24, it appears to have facial hair above the lips and on the chin, or it may indicate an extra fold of skin under the chin. The left ear or earspool is present, which is circular in shape. The similar characteristics that H-25 shares with H-24 may indicate that this head is also male. Its face is round with the chin sticking out. The nose is small and wide, and the mouth is incised in a downward position. The eyes are horizontally slit. Figurines T-17, T-18, L-115 to L-120, and U-22 were found associated with heads H-24 to H

189 H-26 U8/5 FS #: 337 Unit 8, Level 5, cmbd Brown midden 4.3 cm (L), cm (W), cm (T) 10YR 8/2.5, very pale brown Early Franco Phase Figure A.27 - Figurine H-26, Early Franco Phase figurine head, view of front,top of head, and profile Figurine H-26 is the largest of the three heads of FS# 337. It is solid and incompletely fired with a fine sand temper. It wears a hat or turban with a band or crest (similar to Figurine H-21 or Figurine H-23) over the top, although the right side is broken. The face is clearly outlined with a round inverted U shape. The ears have two punctations and two beads dangling from each lobe. The head decoration and ear ornamentation indicate that H-26 is a possible female. The face is oval with full cheeks and the chin protrudes out. The nose has a triangular shape, and the mouth is downturned with two small vertical incisions on either side (similar to Figurine H-23 in Fig.A.24), a characteristic trait in Olmec imagery. The eyes are deep, long slits. Figurine H-26 resembles two particular heads from La Venta (Drucker 1952: Plates 28- b and 37-d). Figurines T-17, T-18, L-115 to L-120, and U-22 were found associated with heads H-24 to H

190 H-27 U8/6 FS #: 347 Unit 8, Level 6, cmbd Brown midden 3.5 cm (L), cm (W), cm (T) 10YR 8/2, white Early Franco Phase Figure A.28 - Figurine H-27, Early Franco Phase figurine head: frontal, profile, and dorsal views A round fragment (1.5 cm tall), previously broken off, refits on the top of Figurine H-27. The broken fragment has vertical striations and resembles a shell, jewel or mirror similar to those found on heads Figurines H-12 and H-23 (Figures A.8 and A.24, respectively). Figurine H-27 resembles a head from Chiapa de Corzo (Lee 1969: Fig.2-q, p.14) that dates to the Dili phase ( B.C.). The face of H-27 is round with full cheeks. The mouth is open with a deep slit and a small lower lip slightly protruding. The nose is large and protruding with punctated nostrils, and the bridge extends up to the forehead. The head wears a turban with three ponytails or tassels in the back. A band of circular beads goes across the forehead. The ears of Figurine H-27 have two punctations with a round bead on each lobe. The hairstyle, head decoration, and ear ornaments indicate this is a female head. The eyes are different from the other heads by having deep slits and punctations within the slits to indicate the pupils. The eyeballs are outlined as well, within the slits. Ridges above the eyes are present that blend into the forehead. The color is a very light orange-brown with spots of a reddish yellow color (7.5YR 6/6). Like most of the heads described thus far, it is solid and incompletely fired with fine sand temper. 172

191 H-28, H-29, H-30 U8/6 FS #: 347 Unit 8, Level 6, cmbd Early Franco Phase H-28: 3.7 cm (L), cm (W), cm (T) 10YR 7/3, very pale brown H-29: 4.2 cm (L), cm (W), cm (T) 10YR 8/1, white H-30: 3.8 cm (L), cm (W), cm (T) 10YR 7/2, light gray a b c Figure A.29 - Figurine fragments: a.) H-28, b.) H-29, c.) H-30 Early Franco Phase Figurines H-28, H-29, and H-30 are fragments of what may have been a large hollow head. Although all three fragments did not refit with each other, they may have been part of the same figurine. The part of the figurine head that they may have been a part of is difficult to determine due to the shapes of the fragments. Figurine H-28 (Figure A.29a) has small, scallop-shaped incisions on one side of the fragment. It also has a groove on one end of the fragment, and a protruding piece on the other end. It is incompletely fired and has a medium sand temper. Some areas of the fragment have red spots (2.5YR 4/6, red). Figurine H-29 (Figure A.29b) also has a few scallop-shaped incisions on one side of the fragment similar to Figurine H-28, as well as striations. It has a medium sand temper and is incompletely fired. One edge of the fragment has the same red color as Figurine H-28 (2.5YR 4/6, red). Figurine H-30 (Figure A.29c) has striations on one side of the fragment. Like the previous two fragments, it is incompletely fired and has a medium sand temper. Rather than having red spots, the fragment has orange-brown spots on it (7.5YR 5/8, strong brown). 173

192 H-31 U8/8 FS #: 418 Unit 8, Level 8, cmbd BGS clay 3.3 cm (L), 2.5 cm (W), cm (T) Early Franco Phase Figure A.30 - Figurine H-31, Early Franco Phase figurine head, front and profile views Figurine H-31 is solid and incompletely fired with a fine sand temper. This unique head has three tassels or strips on top of the head (down each side of the head and down the center) with striations on them. These striated tassels may represent buns or ponytails, similar to heads H-27 (Figure A.28), H-32 (Figure A.31), and H-33 (Figure A.32). Because of this detail, H-31 may be female. Other female gendered characteristics are not present, however, such as the inverted U-shape of the hairline, or elaborate ear ornaments. The mouth might be indicated by a large, protruding bottom lip (the top may have broken off). The position of this protruding part appears low on the face, however. It may represent facial hair on the chin instead, giving this head a male characteristic. Because of the mixed gender characteristics, the gender is indeterminable. The face is oval with full cheeks and the nose is rectangular. The eyes and ears have a unique style for they appear to have been punctated with a small, square tool. Each of the eyes and ears have two square punctations. A globular piece, possibly indicating an ear ornament, sits closely below the left ear. 174

193 H-32 U7 feasting refuse FS #: 816 Unit 7 BGS clay 4.1 cm (L), cm (W), cm (T) 7.5YR 8/2, pinkish white Early Franco Phase Figure A.31 - Figurine H-32, Early Franco Phase figurine head, frontal and dorsal views Figurine H-32 was found in the deeper levels of the Unit 7 feasting refuse. It is solid with a fine sand temper and is incompletely fired. The features on the head are more eroded than the other heads in the collection. The head has a faint crest across the top and a light inverted U shape frames the face, which may mean this is hair. A faint tassel or ponytail hangs down the back of the head. These characteristics may signify that this is a female head. The face is oval with full cheeks, and the chin sticks out. The ears each have two punctations but no ornamentation. The nose is long, with the bridge extending to the forehead, and has a triangular shape. The mouth is incised and downturned. The eyes are each indicated with two horizontal incisions, almost forming an oval shape, with two punctations to indicate the pupils. Faint ridges above the eyes are present. The head was found with figurine torso T

194 H-33 Pump sump FS #: cm (L), cm (W), cm (T) 10YR 7/2, light gray Early Franco Phase Figure A.32 - Figurine H-33, Early Franco Phase figurine head from pump sump salvage: frontal and dorsal views Figurine H-33 is solid and incompletely fired with a medium sand temper. It is similar to Figurine H-32 (Figure A.31) because of the ponytail or tassel that hangs down the back of the head. Figurine H-27 (Figure A.28) also shares this same detail but with three ponytails instead of one. Figurine H-33 wears a tall head garment, but the right and central portion is broken off. The face is outlined with a round inverted U shape. The hair treatment is the only female gendered characteristic present. The face is round, the cheeks are full, and the chin protrudes. A small neck stem is also attached to the base of the head. The ears each have two punctations, with no ear ornaments apparent. The nose is wide and triangular, and the mouth is slit and broken at the top. The eyes are deep, horizontal slits. Figurine H-34 (not pictured) is from Unit 7, Level 4 (PLCSAU7/4, FS# 866) at cm, and is from the Early Franco levels. It is a fragment of what appears to be the back of the head. A tassel or ponytail, similar to those found on Figurines H-32 and H-33, runs down the middle of the fragment. It is 1.6 cm tall, 1.9 cm wide, and cm thick. It most likely was part of a solid figurine, and has a light gray color (10YR 7/1). It has a fine sand temper and is completely fired. 176

195 H-35 Pump sump FS #: cm (L), cm (W), cm (T) 5YR 6/8, reddish yellow Early Franco Phase Figure A.33 - Figurine H-35, Early Franco Phase hollow figurine head from pump sump salvage, frontal and dorsal views Figurine head H-35 is broken below the nose and ears. It is hollow, incompletely fired, and has a fine sand temper. Hair is absent, but two holes are present for firing purposes or for attaching garments: one in the middle of the forehead and one at the back of the head on the top. The head looks similar to the male, loincloth-clad basalt figure from Veracruz (Van Gerstel, personal communication 1998), popularly known as "The Wrestler" (Benson and de la Fuente, 1996:174). For this reason, this head may be male. Follensbee (2000) notes, however, that bald female heads do occur in Olmec imagery. The ears on H-35 are realistically modeled having cartilaginous detail. The nose is somewhat eroded and broken at the end. The eyes are modeled into almond shapes and pupils are absent. Ridges are present above the eyes. 177

196 H-36 U7/9 FS #: 1006 Unit 7, Level 9, cmbd BGS clay 12.7 cm (L), 9.0 cm (W), 7.6 cm (T) 10YR 7/1.5, light gray Early Franco Phase Figure A.34 - Figurine H-36, Early Franco Phase figurine head Figure A.35 - Figurine H-36, right and left profiles 178

197 Figurine heads H-36 and H-37 are the largest in the San Andrés collection. In general, they are different from other ceramic figurine heads of the Formative period because of their large size and unusual facial characteristics. Because of their larger size, their makers were able to give them facial characteristics that were more life-like than the smaller heads. Both heads are from Unit 7, and both are hollow. The larger of the two heads, Figurine H-36 (Figures A.34 and A.35 above), is not fired. It was found in Level 9 of Unit 7 at cm. This level contained numerous nearly-whole vessels, and the head was surrounded by animal bones. The facial features may be representative of local indigenous features. The head appears to have hair with a part or tonsured groove along the middle. The inverted U shape of the hairline may indicate that this individual is female. The top of the head is lighter in color than the face. A hole is present at the top of the head to facilitate firing or for attaching clothing. If the latter is the case, the possibility that the garment worn may or may not have been a male gendered headdress cannot be dismissed. The shape of the face is somewhat round with a pointed chin. The ears are well defined and have no ornamentation, and the nose is wide with punctated nostrils. The mouth is open with protruding lips, giving the appearance that this individual is speaking or singing. The eyes are incised into crescent shapes with no pupils indicated, and eyebrows are indicated. A small base or crude neck (3.1 cm wide) is attached to the bottom of the head that may have attached to or fit into a body. It probably has a very fine sand temper that has prevented it from cracking during the drying process. Figurine H-37 (Figures A.36 and A.37 below) is similar to Figurine H-36 in size. It is the second largest head in the collection. An inverted U-shaped hairline or helmet is present that may indicate that this head is female. The back of the head is not developed. The top of the head is somewhat square, and there are three holes present - one in the middle of the forehead and two on the top sides of the head for firing or, possibly for attaching clothing. The shape of the face is round and wide, and the cheeks appear round or full. The ears are clearly defined and each has two shallow indentations within. The nose is raised with deep punctations to indicate the nostrils. The mouth is open, which may indicate this individual is speaking or singing. The lips are roughly defined, and a small indentation is present above the upper lip. The eyes are oblong shapes with no pupils indicated. The asymmetrical characteristic of the eyes may portray an individual with a deformity. A slight brow ridge is present. A small base (4.0 cm wide) is attached to the bottom of the head. Unlike Figurine H-36, this head is completely fired with a fine sand temper. The color is light gray with some areas having a reddish yellow color (5YR 6/6). 179

198 H-37 U7 Unit 7, BGS Clay 9.8 cm (L), 7.2 cm (W), cm (T) 10YR 7/2, light gray Early Franco Phase Figure A.36 - Figurine H-37, Early Franco Phase figurine head Figure A.37 - Figurine H-37, right and left profiles 180

199 H-38 U7-8 feasting refuse Units cm (L), cm (W), cm (T) 5YR 8/1, white Early Franco Phase Figure A.38 - Figurine H-38, Early Franco Phase face fragment Figurine H-38 is a face fragment found in the Unit 7-8 feasting refuse. The right eye is present, which is an incised oval with a horizontal incision in the middle to indicate the pupil. The nose is raised, and the right nostril has a deep punctation. The upper lip is present, but the bottom lip is broken off. The face fragment was part of a hollow head, and the white color is lighter than the other heads in the collection. A brownish-red color is present around the eye and mouth areas. The fragment is incompletely fired and has a fine glassy volcanic ash temper. The gender of this head fragment is indeterminable because the hair or head treatment and ears are not present. 181

200 H-39 U7-8 feasting refuse Unit cm (L), cm (W), cm (T) 10YR 7/2, light gray Early Franco Phase Figure A.39 - Figurine H-39, Early Franco Phase figurine head Figurine H-39 is solid with a medium sand temper and is almost completely fired. The head garment is unique because the head appears to be wrapped in a turban, and a strap on the left side goes around the side of the face and under the chin. The right side may have had a strap at one time. Another strap goes across the forehead, again possibly broken off on the right side. A round ear ornament adorns each side of the head, but no ears are indicated. Apparent pendants below the earspools, along with the head decoration, suggest that this figurine is female. The face is oval and the nose is raised with a prominent bridge. The mouth is open with a deep groove, and a line is incised on either side of the mouth, giving the appearance that this head is speaking. The eyes are slit horizontally with deep incisions. 182

201 H-40 U7-8 feasting refuse Unit cm (L), cm (W), cm (T) mostly 7.5YR 8/2, pinkish white Early Franco Phase Figure A.40 - Figurine H-40, Early Franco Phase figurine head Figurine H-40 appears to have hair indicated by numerous striations. A band of round beads also lies on the head, close to the forehead area. Because of the hairstyle and head decoration, this head may be female. Each of the ears has two grooves rather than punctations. The face is oval with the chin sticking out. The nose is wide and triangular. The lips are large and the mouth is slit. A vertical line is slit on either side of the mouth, which may indicate the labio-nasal fold of older people. The eyes are also slit. It is also solid, incompletely fired and has a fine sand temper. 183

202 Early Franco Torsos T-05 U1/10 FS #: 291 Unit 1, Level 10, cmbd 5.9 cm (L), 6.0 cm (W), (T) 5YR 7/3.5, pink Early Franco Phase Figure A.41 - Figurine T-05, Early Franco Phase figurine torso Figurine T-05 is a top half of a torso with the right shoulder and upper right abdominal portion present. The torso appears female with subtle breasts having an unusual detail of simple horizontal slits to indicate nipples. This torso is the only one in the San Andrés collection with horizontal incisions to portray nipples as opposed to round punctations. A round pendant is present on the chest. The torso is incompletely fired with a medium sand temper. 184

203 T-11 U7/F3-4 FS #: 183 Unit 7, 72 cmbd Feature cm (L), 2.4 cm (W), 2.2 cm (T) 10YR 8/2, white with patches of 7.5YR 6/6, reddish yellow Early Franco Phase Figure A.42 - Figurine T-11, Early Franco Phase pregnant figurine torso Figurine T-11 is a torso of a pregnant female. The arms and legs are absent, with the exception of the upper right thigh. The torso appears to wear some type of garment that covers the chest. A navel is indicated by a small punctation. The fullness of the abdomen suggests that this figure is in the later stages of pregnancy. The torso is solid and is incompletely fired with a fine sand temper. Some red pigment may have been applied to the figurine, especially around the abdomen. 185

204 T-12 U7/F1b-6 FS #: 241 Unit 7, cmbd Feature 1b cm (L), cm (W), (T) 10YR 8/1.5, white Early Franco Phase Figure A.43 - Figurine T-12, Early Franco Phase figurine torso and close-up view showing detail of a knot Figurine T-12 is a mid-portion of a torso, showing only the abdomen and the upper hip area. The constriction of the waist and the curve of the hips indicates that this figurine is most likely female. Another female characteristic is that a string sits low at the hips, indicating a garment (perhaps a loincloth apron) on the figurine. The detail of a knot or tie of the string shows the creator's attention to detail. A deep punctation on the abdomen indicates the navel. The torso is solid, has a very fine sand temper, and is incompletely fired. 186

205 T-13 U7/7 FS #: 258 Unit 7, Level 7, cmbd 7.3 cm (L), cm (W), (T) 10YR 7/2, light gray Early Franco Phase Figure A.44 - Figurine T-13, Early Franco Phase figurine torso Figurine T-13 is an unusual torso because of its construction. The torso appears to be male because of the absence of breasts as well as having a relatively straight waistline (as opposed to a pinched or constricted waist). The abdomen, however, protrudes outward in a manner resembling pregnancy. A punctation on the right side of the abdomen is unusually placed. Overall, the torso is crudely made compared to the other San Andrés torsos. The right chest area is cracked and the back of the torso, as well as some areas on the front, have spots of brown (7.5YR 5/5, brown). The torso is solid, incompletely fired, and has a fine sand temper. A deep socket is present at the top of the torso, most likely for the insertion of a head. 187

206 T-14 U8/4 FS #: 298 Unit 8, Level 4, cmbd 9.9 cm (L), cm (W), cm (T) 7.5YR 8/2, pinkish white Early Franco Phase Figure A.45 - Figurine T-14, Early Franco Phase figurine torso, frontal and dorsal views Figurine T-14, like T-31 (Figure A.5) and T-40 (Figure A.63) is one of the more complete and classic examples of the San Andrés female figurine. It has minimally pronounced breasts with subtle punctations for nipples, a pinched waist, flaring hips and thigh, and a vertical cleft in the back to accent the buttocks. The one female characteristic that is absent is the pubic "Y" or triangle. Nevertheless, this torso is a good example of how the female form is represented in the San Andrés collection. It is solid, incompletely fired with a medium sand temper. The navel is indicated with a punctation. The right thigh is present and has a mark on the bottom that appears as though the surface was scraped. The torso wears a round pendant on the chest. 188

207 T-15 U7/9 FS #: 319 Unit 7, Level 9, cmbd 4.5 cm (L), cm (W), cm (T) 10YR 7.5/2, light gray Early Franco Phase Figure A.46 - Figurine T-15, Early Franco Phase figurine torso Torso T-15 was found with torso T-16 in Unit 7. Torso T-15 is a female torso with a constricted waist and slight breasts. The left shoulder and upper arm are present. The navel is indicated by a round punctation. A round pendant is present on the chest. It is solid, incompletely fired, with a fine sand temper. 189

208 T-16 U7/9 FS #: 319 Unit 7, Level 9, cmbd 4.3 cm (L), cm (W), cm (T) 10YR 6/2 and 10YR 6/1 light brownish gray and gray with areas of 10YR 4/2, dark grayish brown Early Franco Phase Figure A.47 - Figurine T-16, Early Franco Phase figurine torso Torso T-16 was found in association with torso T-15. T-16 is one of the more crudely-made torsos in the collection. The surface, unlike the smooth surfaces of most of the figurines, is bumpy with small nodules present, and it appears reburned. This solid figurine was made with a fine sand temper and incompletely fired. It may be a female torso due to the constricted waist and subtle indications of breasts. A light trace of a pendant is present on the chest. Both shoulders are present but the torso is partially broken on the right side and broken below the abdominal area. 190

209 T-17 U8/5 FS #: 337 Unit 8, Level 5, cmbd 5.5 cm (L), cm (W), cm (T) 10YR 8/2.5, very pale brown Early Franco Phase Figure A.48 - Figurine T-17, Early Franco Phase figurine torso, frontal and dorsal views Figurine T-17 is one of the few female torsos in the San Andrés collection with clothing, however minimal it may be. The torso wears a simple pubic flap. The flap is a rounded rectangular shape with vertical striations on it, perhaps to suggest that it is a woven piece of garment. A horizontal line is present on either side of the pubic cloth, perhaps to indicate a string. The breasts are subtle, and the nipples are indicated by horizontal incised marks. The navel is also horizontally incised. The buttocks are separated with a deep vertical cleft. The waist is pinched below the breasts. A partial round pendant is present on the chest. The torso is solid and incompletely fired with a fine sand temper. Figurines T-18, H-24 to H-26, L-115 to L-120, and U-22 were found in association with this torso. 191

210 T-18 U8/5 FS #: 337 Unit 8, Level 5, cmbd 6.5 cm (L), cm (W), cm (T) 10YR 8/2, white with 7.5YR 7/6, reddish yellow on front Early Franco Phase Figure A.49 - Figurine T-18,Early Franco Phase figurine torso, frontal and dorsal views Figurine T-18 is one of the few male torsos in the collection. The characteristics that suggest that this torso is male are the flat and rectangular body, and a smooth chest with no undulations. The torso is wearing a pubic covering and a dark area is present below the covering, possibly where male genitalia had once been present or what may have been part of a loincloth. A horizontal line below the navel is incised and similar to figurine T-17, perhaps to indicate a string attached to the pubic covering. The pubic covering is a rare male garment because male Olmec figures usually wear more clothing, such as loincloths and belts high on the waist. The torso wears no ornamentation. A large and horizontally long punctation is present on the abdomen to indicate the navel. The torso is solid and incompletely fired with a fine, glassy volcanic ash temper. A reddish yellow pigment (7.5YR 7/6) is present on the front. This torso was found in association with figurines T-17, H-24 to H-26, L-115 to L-120, and U-22. Figurine T-19 (picture not available) is from Unit 8, Level 6 (PLCSAU8/6, FS# 345). The small fragment is an upper female torso with the right shoulder and breast present. It is approximately 2.8 cm long, cm wide, and cm thick. A faint, round appliqué is present on the breast to indicate a nipple. The fragment is solid, incompletely fired with a fine sand temper, and is pinkish white (5YR 8/2) in color. 192

211 T-20 U8/6 FS #: 347 Unit 8, Level 6, cmbd 3.8 cm (L), cm (W), cm (T) 5YR 5/1, gray with some 7.5YR 7/2, pinkish gray Early Franco Phase Figure A.50 - Figurine T-20, Early Franco Phase seated figurine torso, Frontal and dorsal views Figurine T-20 is one of the few seated torsos in the collection. The torso is possibly a pregnant female due to the presence of a full, round abdomen. A punctated nipple is present on the right side. The buttocks are separated with a vertical cleft. The torso wears a thick belt above the abdomen. For this reason, the torso might be a male figure. In general, male figurines wear belts high on the waist, particularly ballplayers. Nevertheless, this torso is similar to Drucker's Plate 31-i, which is a seated female figurine with a protruding abdomen but not wearing a belt (See Chapter 4). Figurine T- 20 is solid, incompletely fired, possibly reburned, and has a fine sand temper. Figurine T-21 (picture not available) is from Unit 8, Level 6 (PLCSAU8/6, FS# 347). The fragment is a top portion of a female torso with the shoulders and chest present. The breasts are minimally pronounced. In between the breasts is a dark area, possibly where a pendant had previously been present. The torso is approximately 4.9 cm long, cm wide, and cm thick. It is white in color (10YR 8/2). It is solid, incompletely fired, and has a medium sand temper. Figurines H-27, T-20 (above), and L-121 were found in association with this torso fragment. 193

212 T-22 U8/7 FS #: 367 Unit 8, Level 7, cmbd cm (L), cm (W), cm (T) 5YR 8/1 & 8/3, white & pink with some 7.5YR 6/2, light brown Early Franco Phase Figure A.51 - Figurine T-22, Early Franco Phase seated figurine torso Figurine T-22 is a seated female torso and the most complete figurine in the San Andrés collection. The head, hands, and feet are all that are missing. This torso sits with its legs crossed at the ankles and with arms resting on the thighs. The large and drooping breasts probably represents a female figure of a more mature age. The right breast has a light punctation for a nipple, but a punctation is absent on the left breast. A round pendant is present on the chest. Below the rounded abdomen is a concavity the size of a thumb. The maker of this figurine had pushed the bottom of the abdomen with their finger and left it this way, the reason for which is unknown. Perhaps this characteristic was to indicate that this particular figure was past the age of childbearing. An alternative view is that this female represents someone who has just given birth; thus the full breasts and concave abdomen. The torso is solid and incompletely fired with a fine sand temper. The following figurines were found in association with T-22: T-23 to T-25, L-122 to L-130, A-09, and U-23 to U

213 T-23 U8/7 FS #: 367 Unit 8, Level 7, cmbd 8.8 cm (L), cm (W), cm (T) 10YR 8/2, white with some 5YR 7/6 & 6/6, reddish yellow Early Franco Phase Figure A.52 - Figurine T-23,Early Franco Phase seated figurine torso, frontal and dorsal views Figurine T-23 is the bottom half of a seated torso. The waist, buttocks, and upper thigh are present. A deep, horizontal incision is present on the abdomen to indicate the navel. The buttocks are separated with a subtle vertical incision. The way in which the torso sits indicates that the legs were probably splayed out as opposed to being bent and crossed at the calves or ankles. The torso was found in association with figurines T-22, T-24, T-25, L-122 to L-130, A-09, and U-23 to U-26. Figurine T-23 is solid and incompletely fired. It has a fine, glassy volcanic ash temper. The gender of this torso fragment is difficult to determine due to the limited gender characteristics present. Figurine T-24 (picture not available) is from Unit 8, Level 7 (PLCSAU8/7, FS# 367). It is an upper torso fragment of a chest. The torso is most likely female due to the presence of minimally pronounced breasts. A faint, round pendant, broken at the top, is present on the chest. The torso fragment is solid, incompletely fired, and has a fine sand temper. It is approximately 3.0 cm long, cm wide, and 1.6 cm thick. It is white in color (10YR 8/2). Figurines found in association with this torso are T-22, T- 23, T-25, L-122 to L-130, A-09, and U-23 to U

214 Figurine T-25 (picture not available) is from Unit 8, Level 7 (PLCSAU8/7, FS# 367). The figurine is a torso fragment of the chest and abdominal area. The shoulders, hips, and limbs are absent. The torso may be male because of the straightness and rectangular shape of the body, and the lack of curves or undulations. A deep socket is present on one end where a head may have been inserted. The torso is approximately 4.8 cm in length, cm in width, and 1.8 cm in thickness. It has a light gray color (10YR 6.5/1). It is solid with a medium sand temper and is incompletely fired. This torso was found in association with T-22 to T-24, L-122 to L-130, A-09, and U-23 to U- 26. T-26 U8/F1-7 FS #: 407 Unit 8, cmbd Feature cm (L), cm (W), cm (T) 10YR 7.5/2, light gray Early Franco Phase Figure A.53 - Figurine T-26, Early Franco Phase figurine torso Figurine T-26 is the lower fragment of a female torso that includes the waist, hips, and both thighs. The female characteristics are the constricted waist, flaring hips and thighs, and the pubic "Y." A horizontal line below the abdomen may signify a string for a loincloth apron. A punctation on the abdomen indicates the navel. The torso is solid, tempered with fine sand, and incompletely fired. Figurines T-27, T-28, L-131, and L-132 were found in association with T

215 T-27 U8/F1-7 FS #: 407 Unit 8, cmbd Feature cm (L), cm (W), cm (T) 10YR 7/3, very pale brown Early Franco Phase Figure A.54 - Figurine T-27, Early Franco Phase figurine torso, Frontal and dorsal views Figurine T-27 is a classic example of a male figurine and is one of the more complete figurines in the San Andrés collection. It resembles the torso in Drucker's (1952) Plate 31-c as well as a stone sculpture from Loma del Zapote (Cyphers 1997:Fig.7.16), a site 3 km south of San Lorenzo. The stone sculpture, in turn, is similar to the figure in the Oxtotitlán Cave painting in Guerrero, Mexico (Grove 1970: Mural1). The similarities suggest a common mode of Middle Formative period dress for males that include a loincloth with a thick belt having hip cloths hanging down from it, and a pendant or pectoral worn on the chest. The belt is worn high around the abdominal area, unlike the low-slung aprons that female figures wear. T-27 wears a round pendant with a smaller bead above it, and a possible cape. The torso is solid, incompletely fired with a fine sand temper, and has a deep head socket. T-27 was found in association with figurines T-26, T-28, L-131, and L

216 T-28 U8/F1-7 FS #: 407 Unit 8, cmbd Feature cm (L), cm (W), cm (T) 10YR 7/3, very pale brown Early Franco Phase Figure A.55 - Figurine T-28, Early Franco Phase figurine torso Figurine T-28 is a fragment of a seated female torso. Two characteristics make this a seated figurine. One characteristic is that although the legs were broken off, the location of the breakage indicates that the legs were placed in front instead of below the hips. The second characteristic is that the bottom of the torso is somewhat flat, allowing the figure to be positioned on this flat surface. The torso is female due to the presence of breasts, a pinched waist, hips that flare out, and prominent buttocks. Nipples are indicated on the breasts with a punctated technique. A punctation on the mid-abdomen indicates the navel. The torso wears a kind of band or belt below the breasts or high on the waist, and is connected to a round pendant on the chest. T-28 is solid and incompletely fired with a fine sand temper. It was found in association with figurines T-26, T-27, L-131, and L

217 T-29 U8/8 FS #: 418 Unit 8, Level 8, cmbd 6.7 cm (L), 5.0 cm (W), (T) 10YR 6/2 & 7/2, light brownish gray, light gray Early Franco Phase Figure A.56 - Figurine T-29, Early Franco Phase figurine torso Figurine T-29 is a solid torso fragment of a female figure. The abdominal area is present along with the left shoulder and the left side of the chest. The left breast is minimally pronounced and has a nipple indicated by a punctation. The waist flares out at the bottom where the hips would begin. The mid-left portion of the abdomen is broken off. A horizontal incision on the central abdomen indicates the presence of a navel. The torso has a fine sand temper and is incompletely fired. It was found in association with H-31, T-30, and L

218 T-30 U 8/8 FS #: 418 Unit 8, Level 8, cmbd 4.8 cm (L), 5.3 cm (W), cm (T) 7.5YR 7.5/2, pinkish gray with some 7.5YR 6/8, reddish yellow Early Franco Phase Figure A.57 - Figurine T-30, Early Franco Phase figurine torso Figurine T-30 is an upper torso fragment of a male figure. The upper left arm, both shoulders, and the chest are present. This torso is unique because it is the only figurine in the San Andrés collection that appears to wear clothing on the upper body. Parallel incisions around the left arm show a fringe-type detail of a short-sleeved shirt or cape. Two vertical incisions on the chest show the shirt was worn in an open manner. A fragment of a belt with a round ornament is present around the abdominal area. The torso is male because of the lack of undulations on the chest. T-30 is solid, incompletely fired, and has a fine/very fine sand temper. Figurines H-31, T-29, and L- 133 were found in association with this torso. 200

219 T-32 U7-8 Feasting refuse FS #: 729 Units cm (L), cm (W), cm (W) 10YR 6/3, pale brown Early Franco Phase Figure A.58 - Figurine T-32, Early Franco Phase figurine torso Figurine T-32 is a female upper torso fragment. It has small breasts with punctated nipples. A round pendant is present on the chest in addition to smaller beads below and on either side of the central pendant. This type of ornamentation is similar to that found at La Venta, particularly the torso in Drucker's Plate 35-l (1952). Torso T-32 is incompletely fired, solid, and has a fine sand temper. 201

220 T-33 U7 Feasting refuse FS #: 765 Unit cm (L), cm (W), cm (T) 10YR 8/2, white Early Franco Phase Figure A.59 - Figurine T-33, Early Franco Phase figurine torso, frontal and dorsal views Figurine T-33 is the largest solid torso in the collection. Based on the characteristics that Follensbee uses to distinguish between male and female torsos, figurine T-33 is a female torso. Although no breasts are present, two female attributes are the constricted waist and the low-slung loincloth apron worn by the torso. If the torso were a male, the shape of the body might be more cylindrical or rectangular in shape, and the loincloth would be thicker and worn higher on the waist. This particular torso may portray a young female of pubescent age. It is incompletely fired, and has a fine, glassy volcanic ash temper. A red pigment may have been applied to the torso. The apron shows a woven detail that is one of the finer examples of textiles used at San Andrés. 202

221 Figurine T-34 (picture not available) is a fragment of an upper torso. It was found from the Unit 7 feasting refuse (FS# 816). Its crude construction makes the gender difficult to determine. Nevertheless, a faint vertical groove along the upper abdomen and a horizontal groove on the left side of the abdomen may indicate that the torso is a male wearing a belt high on the waist. No breasts are present but the waist appears somewhat constricted. The torso is solid, has a medium sand temper, and is incompletely fired. It is about 3.6 cm(l)x cm (W)x cm(t). It is light gray (10YR 7/1) in color. The torso was found with figurine head H-32. Figurine T-35 (not pictured) is from Unit 8, Level 6 (FS# 823). The figurine is a bottom torso fragment with the upper legs present. A fingerprint was present on the right side and bottom edge of the right leg. Warren Barbour's analysis of the fingerprint concludes that it most likely was a female fingerprint (personal communication, 2000). The torso appears to have a somewhat constricted waist. A navel is indicated by a punctation on the abdomen. The hips appear neither straight nor curvy, but more like that of an infant. The torso is very pale brown in color (10YR 7/3). It is approximately 4.6 cm in length, cm in width, and cm in thickness. It is solid, completely fired, and has no temper. The surface is bumpy, giving the torso a crudely made appearance. Figurine L-142 was found in association with T-35. T-36 Pump sump FS #: cm (L), cm (W), cm (T) 10YR 7/1, light gray Early Franco Phase Figure A.60 - Figurine T-36, Early Franco Phase figurine torso from pump sump salvage Figurine T-36 is a lower torso fragment of an abdomen and left thigh. The torso is possibly a female figure due to the curve of the hip and flaring thigh. A triangularshape pubic covering is present. A rectangular punctation on the abdomen indicates a navel. The torso is solid and incompletely fired with a fine, glassy volcanic ash temper. It was found in association with H-33, and L-143 to L

222 T-37 U8 West Wall Feasting refuse FS #: 842 Unit cm (L), (W), (T) 5YR 8/1, white Early Franco Phase Figure A.61 - Figurine T-37, Early Franco Phase figurine torso Figurine T-37 is a female torso found in the west wall feasting refuse of Unit 8. The breasts are relatively large in comparison to those of the other San Andrés figurine torsos. The nipples are indicated by deep punctations. The waist is constricted and the hips flare out. The navel is indicated with a small punctation, and a dark area surrounds the navel, as though the surface was scratched or scraped off. A horizontal incision along the bottom of the abdomen is present, perhaps to indicate the strings of a loincloth or other garment worn by this particular figure. A fragment of the upper right thigh is present as well as both shoulders and the top of the left arm. A round pendant is present on the chest. The torso is solid with fine sand temper and is incompletely fired. 204

223 T-38 U7/4 FS #: 866 Unit 7, Level 4, cmbd 6.4 cm (L), cm (W), cm(t) 7.5YR 7/4, pink Early Franco Phase Figure A.62 - Figurine T-38, Early Franco Phase figurine torso Figurine T-38 is an upper torso fragment of a chest with its right arm. The limited characteristics on the torso make its gender indeterminable. Two subtle punctations on the chest indicate nipples. The right arm is in a raised position that is not found in any other San Andrés torso. It is solid and incompletely fired with a fine sand temper. It is pink (7.5YR 7/4) in color, but appears like a light brown. Its dimensions are approximately 6.4 cm in length, cm in width, and cm in thickness. Figurines H-34, T-39, and L-146 were found in association with this torso fragment. Figurine T-39 (picture not available) is from Unit 7, Level 4 (PLCSAU7/4, FS# 866). It is a small fragment of an upper torso. The left breast, left shoulder, and the top portion of the left arm are present. The presence of a relatively large breast makes this torso female. Its color is pinkish white (7.5YR 8/2) with dimensions of 4.0 cm in length, 4.8 cm in width, and cm in thickness. It is solid, incompletely fired, and has a fine sand temper. This torso was found in association with H-34, T-38, and L

224 T-40 U7-8 Feasting refuse FS #: 875 Units cm (L), cm (W), cm (T) 5YR 8/1, white (front)/ 10YR 8/2, white (back) Early Franco Phase Figure A.63 - Figurine T-40, Early Franco Phase figurine torso Figurine T-40 is one of the more complete torsos in the San Andrés collection because of the presence of the upper left arm and the upper right thigh. The torso is female with subtle breasts, a pinched waist, flaring hips and thigh, and a pubic triangle. A shallow punctation in the middle of the abdomen indicates the navel. A round pendant is present on the chest. It is solid, incompletely fired with a medium sand temper. 206

225 T-42 U7 Feasting refuse Unit cm (L), cm (W), cm (T) 5YR 8/1, white Early Franco Phase Figure A.64 - Figurine T-42, Early Franco Phase torso fragment, two views Figurine T-42 is the largest figurine fragment in the San Andrés collection. It is also the only hollow torso fragment. It is most likely an abdominal section of a figurine torso. The fragment has no decoration but is instead a smooth, almost cylindrical piece. It is made with a white, fine glassy volcanic ash temper. Given the dimensions of this fragment alone, this particular figurine is unusually large and an uncommon occurrence for Middle Formative period figurines in general. 207

226 T-43 U7-8 Feasting refuse Units cm (L), cm (W), cm (T) 7.5YR 8/2, pinkish white Early Franco Phase Figure A.65 - Figurine T-43, Early Franco Phase figurine torso Figurine T-43 is a fragment of a female upper torso. It has small, round breasts with punctations for nipples. The waist is pinched below the breasts, and the navel is indicated with a deep punctation. The torso wears a round pendant on the chest. The upper-most right arm is present as well as a shallow head socket. It is solid and incompletely fired with a fine sand temper. 208

227 T-44 U7-8 Feasting refuse Units cm (L), 5.8 cm (W), cm (T) 10YR 8/2 with 7.5YR 5/6, white with strong brown Early Franco Phase Figure A.66 - Figurine T-44, Early Franco Phase figurine torso Figurine T-44 is a solid torso fragment broken just below the breasts. Both of the shoulders are present but the arms appear to have broken off just below the shoulders. The torso is female with small, almost round breasts. Subtle punctations mark the nipples. It is tempered with fine sand and is incompletely fired. 209

228 Early Franco Limbs The limbs from the Early Franco levels make up the largest group of fragments in the San Andrés collection. Ninety-eight fragments, or approximately 32 percent of all of the figurines, are Early Franco limbs. Seventeen of the fragments are from the Unit 7-8 feasting refuse and pump sump salvage (see below). Of the remaining 81 fragments, 74 are solid limbs, 3 are hollow, and 4 have not been examined (L-163, L- 164, L-171, L-172). The solid limb fragments consist of 30 legs, 27 arms, 6 foot fragments, one hand fragment, 10 are undetermined. The 3 hollow limb fragments consist of a hand, an arm, and a foot. The colors range from white, pinkish white, pink, to shades of red, brown, and gray. Most of the Early Franco limbs have a fine sand temper, with the exception of 5 limbs with medium sand temper, 3 with very fine sand temper, and 5 limbs with fine volcanic ash temper. Almost all of the limbs are incompletely fired except for 3 limbs (L-036, L-100, L-113, L-115, L-122, L-150) that are completely fired. Examples of Early Franco limbs are Figures Twelve limb fragments were recovered from the Unit 7-8 feasting refuse. They include: 2 leg fragments (L-138 and L-139), 2 foot fragments (L-152 and L-156), 6 arm fragments (L-140, L-141, L-157, L-158, L-159, L-160), and 2 fragments not analyzed (L-161 and L-162). The 10 analyzed fragments consist of 8 solid and 2 hollow limbs. Six limb fragments are white in color, one is pinkish gray, one is pinkish white with areas of reddish yellow, and two are reddish yellow. Most are made with a fine sand temper, one is of a fine volcanic ash temper, and one has a medium-fine sand temper. Almost all of the limb fragments are incompletely fired except for L-140, which is completely fired. Four of these limbs may have been reburned (L-138, L-139, L-152, L-156). Five limb fragments are from the pump sump salvage. The limbs consist of: 2 arms (L-143 and L-151), 2 legs (L-144 and L-145), and 1 undetermined leg fragment (L-137). The undetermined fragment is hollow and the other four fragments are solid. All of the limbs were made with a fine volcanic ash temper. Four limbs are incompletely fired; the fifth limb is reburned. Three limbs are white in color, one is pink, and one is light gray. 210

229 L-28 U1/9 FS #: 259 Unit 1, Level 9, cmbd 2.6 cm (L), cm (W), 0.6 cm (T) 7.5YR 8/2, pinkish white Early Franco Phase Figure A.67 - Figurine L-28, Early Franco Phase hand L-98 and L-99 U8/4 FS #: 298 Unit 8, Level 4, cmbd Early Franco Phase L-98: 6.9 cm (L), cm (W), cm (T) 7.5YR 8/2 with some 7.5YR 5/6, pinkish white with some strong brown L-99: 6.1 cm (L), cm (W), cm (T) Mottled 7.5YR 8/2 and 7.5YR 7/2, pinkish white and pinkish gray Figure A.68 - Figurines L-98 and L- 99 respectively, Early Franco Phase figurine legs 211

230 L-100 U7/8 FS #: 307 Unit 7, Level cmbd 2.5 cm (L), 2.4 cm (W), 1.2 cm (T) 7.5YR 7.5/2, pinkish white Early Franco Phase Figure A.69 - Figurine L-100, Early Franco Phase foot fragment L-108 U7/9 FS #: 319 Unit 7, Level 9, cmbd 8.0 cm (L), cm (W), cm (T) 10YR 6/2, light brownish gray Early Franco Phase Figure A.70 - Figurine L-108, hollow figurine arm from Early Franco Phase (view of palm and back of hand, respectively) 212

231 L-112 U7/9 FS #: 319 Unit 7, Level 9, cmbd 5.3 cm (L), cm (W), cm (T) 10YR 7.5/1, light gray Early Franco Phase Figure A.71 - Figurine L-112, figurine leg from Early Franco Phase (frontal and profile views, respectively) L-123 and L-125 U8/7 FS #: 367 Unit 8, Level 7, cmbd Early Franco Phase L-123: 3.2 cm (L), cm (W), L-125: 12.4 cm (L), cm (W), cm (T) cm (T) 7.5YR 7.5/2, pinkish gray 10YR 7/2 with some 10YR 6/3, light gray with some pale brown Figure A.72 - Figurines L-125 (top) and L-123 (bottom), Early Franco Phase figurine limbs 213

232 L-131 and L-132 U8/F1-7 FS #: 407 Unit 8, cmbd Feature 1-7 Early Franco Phase L-131: 3.0 cm (L), cm (W), 0.8+(W) 7.5YR 8/2, pinkish white L-132: 5.0 cm (L), cm (W), cm (W) 5YR 8/1, white Figure A.73 - Figurines L-131 (left), L-132 (right) Early Franco Phase figurine limbs L-138 U8 W Wall Feasting refuse FS #: 738 Unit cm (L), cm (W), cm (T) 5YR 6/6, reddish yellow Early Franco Phases Figure A.74 - Figurine L-138, Early Franco Phase hollow figurine leg, views of front and heel of foot 214

233 L-144 Pump sump FS #: cm (L), cm (W), cm (T) 5Y 8/1 with some 10YR 8/1, white with white Early Franco Phase Figure A.75 - Figurine L-144, Early Franco Phase figurine leg from pump sump salvage, view of both sides L-156 U7 Feasting refuse Unit cm (L), cm (W), cm (T) 10YR 8/2, white Early Franco Phase Figure A.76 - Figurine L-156, Early Franco Phase hollow figurine foot 215

234 Early Franco Animal Figures A-06 U7/F4-7 FS #: 280 Unit 7, cmbd Feature cm (L), cm (W), 1.7 cm (T) 5YR 8/1, white (very pale brown) Early Franco Phase Figure A.77 - Figurine A-06, Early Franco Phase animal figurine Figurine A-06 is a head fragment of a bird, probably a duck. A pointed beak is present, along with round, appliqué pellets for eyes. The head is solid and incompletely fired with a fine sand temper. It was found in association with limbs L-090 to L

235 A-07 U7/8 FS #: 307 Unit 7, Level 8, cmbd 4.3 cm (L), cm (W), cm (T) 10YR 7/2, light gray Early Franco Phase Figure A.78 - Figurine A-07, Early Franco Phase animal figurine Figurine A-07 is a head fragment of an animal, possibly a paca. A long, thick neck is present along with the head. The animal appears to have a long snout or beak that is slightly open. The eyes are round with a light punctation in the center and eyelids are present above each eye. The head is solid, incompletely fired, and has a fine sand temper. It was found in association with L-100 to L-107 and U

236 A-08 U7/9 FS #: 319 Unit 7, Level 9, cmbd 5.4 cm (L), cm (W), cm (T) 7.5YR 7/2 with 5YR 5/1, pinkish gray with gray Early Franco Phase Figure A.79 - Figurine A-08, Early Franco Phase animal figurine One animal figurine, A-08, was found in Level 9 of Unit 7. It appears bird-like with a beak featuring knob-like ornamentation, possibly depicting a Muscovy duck. An ornament or a circular detail in the center of the head is present along with two globular eyes on either side of it. Two round nodules with small incisions appear on the lower area of both sides of the head. The top and neck areas appear broken. The head is solid and incompletely fired with a fine sand temper. 218

237 A-09 U8/7 FS #: 367 Unit 8, Level 7, cmbd 2.3 cm (L), cm (W), cm (T) 10YR 8/1, white Early Franco Phase Figure A.80 - Figurine A-09, frontal and top views, Early Franco Phase animal figurine Figurine A-09 is the only animal figurine in the collection that appears cat-like, perhaps representing a jaguar. The head itself is round with rounded, full cheeks. A snout, as opposed to a beak, is present that is feline in appearance. A small, slit eye is present on the right side. The mouth is slit and slightly open. Dark spots are present on both sides of the head where ears may have been. A small neck is still attached to the head. This animal figurine is solid with a fine or very fine sand temper, and is incompletely fired. Figurines found in association with this animal head are: T-22 to T- 25, L-122 to L-130, and U-23 to U

238 Late Franco Phase (550/ BC) The figurines of the Late Franco phase are the second largest group in the San Andrés collection. Fifty-three figurines, or 17 percent of the collection, emerged from the Late Franco levels. The figurines include: 7 heads, 5 torsos, 28 limb fragments, 2 animals, and 11 unidentifiable fragments (U-01 to U-10 and U-31). Late Franco Heads H-02 U1/4 FS #: 95 Unit 1, Level cm (L), 1.6 cm (W), 1.2 cm (T) 7.5YR 8/4, pink Late Franco Phase Figure A.81 - Figurine H-02, Late Franco phase figurine ear fragment Figurine H-02 is a solid ear fragment with a very fine sand temper and is incompletely fired. Two arcs are incised to indicate the cartilaginous details of the ear. The middle to lower portion of the ear is broken off. The size of this ear fragment suggests that it was part of a relatively large figurine head. Figurines found in association with H-02 are a torso (T-01), a limb (L-004), and unidentifiable figurine fragments (U-02 to U-04). 220

239 H-03 U1/5 FS #: 113 Unit 1, Level 5, cmbd 4.4 cm (L), 3.1 cm (W), 3.2 cm (T) 5YR 8/2.5, pinkish white Late Franco Phase Figure A.82 - Figurine H-03, Late Franco Phase figurine head A gray core is present in Figurine H-03, which indicates that it was incompletely fired. No hair is apparent, but instead, the head wears a turban with a strip across the front and a fragment of a top crest is on the right side. The top left side appears to have been removed, almost as though it were sliced. The face is framed in a somewhat rounded, inverted U shape. The face is round in shape and has a pointed chin, which may indicate a beard. The mouth is horizontally slit with two smaller slits above it, which may be indicative of facial hair. Because of the female gendered characteristic of the head treatment, and the male gendered characteristic of the facial hair, the gender of this head is indeterminable. The ears have small punctations, and the nose is long and slightly raised. The eyes are indicated by slits at an angle with small punctations. It is solid with a fine sand temper. Figurine H-04 (not pictured) is from Unit 1, Level 5 (PLCSAU1/5, FS# 118) and is a small fragment of a side of a head with an ear. It is hollow, reburned, has a fine sand temper, and is reddish yellow in color (5YR 7/6). The fragment measures 4.2 cm in length and is cm in thickness. Two punctations are present in the central area of the ear. 221

240 H-06 U1/6 FS #: 197 Unit 1, Level 6, cmbd 3.2 cm (L), 2.2 cm (W), 2.5 cm (T) 5YR 7/6, reddish yellow Late Franco Phase Figure A.83 - Figurine H-06, Late Franco Phase figurine head The unique aspect to figurine H-06 is that it appears intentionally undeveloped on the top right side as well as the top and back of the head, and it appears more crude than most of the other heads. The forehead has a slight protuberance or bump on it, as though to convey an injury or deformation. The open mouth is deeply slit with raised areas around it to indicate lips. The nose is relatively flat, although it does have a slight bridge and punctated nostrils. The right eye is not clearly defined but may have been a horizontal slit that appears almost smudged or smoothed out before firing. The left eye is indicated with a horizontal slit and has a faint ridge above it. The overall appearance of the face conveys an expression of an individual in pain or with an illness. The gender is indeterminable because hair and ear features are not present. The head is solid and may have been reburned. It has a fine sand temper. This piece was found with a face fragment (H-07), limb fragments L-012 to L-017, and unidentifiable figurine fragments U-07 and U

241 H-07 U1/6 FS #: 197 Unit 1, Level 6, cmbd 3.5 cm (L), 2.3 cm (W), cm (T) 7.5YR 7.5/2, pinkish gray Late Franco Phase Figure A.84 - Figurine H-07 Late Franco Phase figurine face fragment Figurine H-07 is a fragment of a nose and upper lip that was part of a hollow head. Although it is a fragment, the dimensions indicate that it was part of a relatively large figurine head. The nose is raised and is outlined with shallow, semi-circular grooves or incisions around the nostrils. The nostrils also have deep, round punctations. The partial upper lip is subtly indicated and has a small indentation above the middle. The temper has fine, glassy volcanic ash elements. It was found with Figurine H-06 as well as limbs and unidentifiable figurine fragments. 223

242 H-08 U1/7 FS #: 231 Unit 1, Level 7, cmbd 3.6 cm (L), 2.7 cm (W), 0.7 cm (T) 5YR 6.5/4, light reddish brown Late Franco Phase Figure A.85 - Figurine H-08, Late Franco Phase figurine ear fragment Figurine H-08 is a possible ear fragment with an earplug. The fragment resembles the shape of an ear, but the oval shape in the center makes the fragment appear more like a pottery sherd with decoration. It has a fine sand temper and is almost completely fired but a light gray core remains. The fragment may have been part of a hollow figurine. It was found with figurine torsos T-03 and T-04 and limb fragments L-023 to L

243 H-09 U1/4 FS #: 279 Unit 1, Level 4, cmbd Feature 3A 5.7 cm (L), cm (W), cm (T) 5YR 8/3.5, pink Late Franco Phase Photo by Allison Perrett Figure A.86 - Figurine H-09, Late Franco Phase figurine head, Frontal, profile, and dorsal views Figurine H-09 has a dark gray core, indicating that it was incompletely fired. The head wears a tall head garment that has small vertical incisions along the base of it, and has a tassel or ponytail on the back of the head. The head also appears to have hair on the sides of the face and close to the ears, indicated by striations. The ears have two round indentations but no ear ornaments are present. The nose has a distinct bridge, with the nostrils lightly punctated. The mouth appears downturned and is slit with the bottom lip sticking out. A subtle incision above the lips is present, similar to that found on H-03. Given the unusual head garment and the possible facial hair above the lips, this head may be male. On the other hand, the ponytail or tassel on the back and the striated portions of hair by the ears may indicate that this is a female head. The face is framed in a somewhat rounded, inverted U shape, lending another female gendered characteristic. The eyes are unique in that two round pellets are applied over horizontal slits. H-09 is solid and has a fine sand temper. 225

244 H-01 U1/2 FS # 19 Unit 1, Level 2, cmbd 3.4 cm (L), 2.4 cm (W), 2.0 cm (T) 7.5YR 6/5, reddish yellow Mixed Late Franco/ Late Classic/Postclassic Phases Figure A.87 - Figurine H-01, figurine head from mixed Late Franco/ Late Classic/Postclassic Phases Figurine H-01 is solid and completely fired with a fine sand temper. The head appears to have hair that frames the forehead, and a small lump or bun is present on the top left side. The forehead has a subtle round bump on it, indicating an ornament decoration. Such characteristics indicate this to be a female head. The ears appear to have small earspools that are round in shape with a punctation in the center. The shape of the face is oval with a pointed chin. The eyes are small, round appliqué pieces, and the eyebrows are indicated by slight ridges. The nose is slightly raised but is mostly eroded. The open mouth is indicated with a shallow groove. Figurine H-01 was found in association with a limb fragment (L-001). The level that the figurine came from contained mixed Late Franco Phase and Late Classic Phase materials. 226

245 Late Franco Torsos Figurine T-01 (picture not available) is from Unit 1, Level 4 (U1/4, FS# 95). It is a small fragment of a possible female breast. A round, appliqué pellet is present, which may indicate a pendant or a nipple. The fragment is approximately 1.9 cm long (or wide), 2.6 cm wide (or long), and 0.9 cm thick. It is solid, incompletely fired with a fine sand temper, and is pink in color (7.5YR 8/4). Figurines H-02, L-004, and U-02 to U-04 were found in association with T-01. T-02 U1/7 FS #: 219 Unit 1, Level cm (L), cm (W), cm (T) 5YR 8/4, pink Late Franco Phase Figure A.88 - Figurine T-02, Late Franco Phase pregnant torso Figurine T-02 is one of the few pregnant female torsos in the collection. The right and middle section of the chest is present as well as a full and round abdomen. The abdominal area is broken off showing a dark, incompletely fired layer. The right breast has a nipple indicated by a punctation. The torso wears a pubic flap in the shape of a half crescent. A round clay pellet is appliquéd to the chest to signify a pendant. T- 02 is solid, incompletely fired, and has a fine sand temper. Figurines found in association with T-02 are L-018 to L-022, U-09, and U

246 T-03 U1/7 FS #: 231 Unit 1, Level 7, cmbd 4.1 cm (L), cm (W), cm (T) 5YR 6.5/4, light reddish brown Late Franco Phase Figure A.89 - Figurine T-03, Late Franco Phase figurine torso Figurine T-03 is a solid female torso. It is broken below the abdomen and partially broken on the right side. The left shoulder, chest, and abdomen are present. The breasts are round in shape, but the left breast is more pronounced than the right breast. Two punctations mark the nipples on the breasts. Based on the left side of the torso, the waist appears pinched below the breast and begins to flare out. A subtle punctation may be present on the center of the abdomen to indicate the navel. This figurine is solid and almost completely fired with a fine sand temper. It was found in association with figurines H-08, T-04, and L-023 to L-025. Figurine T-04 (picture not available) is from Unit 1, Level 7 (PLCSAU1/7, FS# 231). The figurine is the bottom of a torso fragment. The bottom half of the abdomen is present as well as the buttocks. The torso is relatively flat around the buttocks allowing the torso to be in a seated posture. Because it is a torso fragment with limited body parts, the gender is indeterminable. It is solid and incompletely fired with a fine sand temper. It is approximately 2.6 cm long, 4.8 cm wide, and cm thick. It is pink in color (5YR 7/4 front, 5YR 7/3 back). Figurines found in association with this figurine are H-08, T-03, and L-023 to L

247 T-41 U1/F3-3 Unit 1, cmbd Feature cm (L), cm (W), cm (T) Between 2.5YR 6/8 and 5YR 7/6, light red and reddish yellow Late Franco Phase Figure A.90 - Figurine T-41, Late Franco Phase figurine torso Figurine T-41 is a female torso with the shoulders, breasts, and abdomen present. A small portion of the upper left arm is also present. The characteristics that make this figurine female are the round, minimally pronounced breasts and the pinched waist, which begins just below the breasts and flares out. The breasts have light punctations for nipples, and the navel is indicated with a light punctation as well. A faint incision is present below the navel and on the left side above the hip area. A round appliqué pellet is present on the chest to represent a mirror pendant. The figurine is solid with a fine sand temper and is completely fired and reburned. 229

248 Late Franco Limbs The Late Franco limbs consist of 28 fragments, which are approximately 9 percent of the total San Andrés collection. All of the limbs are solid in composition, except for one that has not been analyzed (L-165). The limb fragments consist of: 7 legs (L-010, L-017, L-018, L-020, L-025, L-042, L-054), 5 arms (L-006, L-019, L-021, L-023, L-024), 2 hands (L-015, L-043), 1 foot (L-011), and 12 undetermined limb fragments (L-002 to L-005, L-007 to L-009, L-012 to L-014, L-016, L-022). The majority of the Late Franco limbs have a fine sand temper. Four limbs have a very fine sand temper, one limb has temper of extremely fine sand, and one limb has a fine volcanic ash temper. Sizes range from approximately cm in length, and cm in thickness. The clay colors are mostly pink; some are reddish yellow and light brown or pale brown. One limb is pinkish gray and one other limb is pinkish white. White is absent in Late Franco limbs. Six of the limbs are completely fired, two are reburned, and the remaining limbs are incompletely fired. 230

249 Late Franco Animal Figures A-01 U1/5 FS #: 100 Unit 1, Level cm (L), 1.9 cm (W), cm (T) 5YR 8/3, pink Late Franco Phase Figure A.91 - Figurine A-01, Late Franco Phase animal figurine Figurine A-01 is a solid head of an animal figure, possibly a bat. The odd shape of the head is globular and thick on one end and thins out toward the other end, giving the head a snout-like feature. Two indentations appear at the end of the snout, probably representing nostrils. The cheeks appear round and full with the presence of circular appliqué pellets on both sides. The eyes are round appliqué pellets that are on the sides of the head. Two appliqué fillets, possibly eyebrows or ears, sit above the eyes. The head appears more animal-like than human, but the features look unreal or exaggerated. It is reburned and has a fine sand temper. Figurine A-02 (photo not available) appears to have been a fragment of a hollow figurine or may be a pottery sherd. A small, open beak is present or a small triangular piece may have been cut out of the clay. It is probably from a hollow figurine because its thickness is only cm. It is approximately 4.7 cm long and 2.5 cm wide. It is completely fired with a fine temper. It is pale brown (10YR 6/3) in color. Figurine A- 02 was found cmbd in brown clay in Level 5 of Unit 1 (PLCSAU1/5, FS#113). It was found associated with the following figurines: H-03, L-006, L-007 and U