Woodland Period Indigenous People. Image from The American Woodland Indians (Men-At-Arms, No 228).

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1 By the end of the Archaic Period (around 500 b.c.), early Indigenous People had begun to develop distinct familial and tribal identities, as well as religious and political systems, as is evidenced by their increasingly elaborate methods of burial. As they began to become settled in the Upper Mississippi River Valley, these early Indigenous People developed beliefs that reflected what they saw around them. Local wildlife, natural forces, and the great river that provided rich fishing and a means for communication and trade with other Indigenous People all became prominent in their beliefs. As they began to settle into the land and become familiar with its ways, this collection of scattered, disorganized beliefs gradually grew into an organized belief system. This system explained how the world worked, including views both of life and of the afterlife. Woodland Period Indigenous People. Image from The American Woodland Indians (Men-At-Arms, No 228). The Woodland Period (500 b.c a.d.) was a period of unusual stability in the way of life of the Indigenous Peoples of the Upper Mississippi River Valley. Though they would still change camps in fall and winter, moving to rock shelters to protect themselves from the extremes of wind and cold, they began more and more to take on the trappings of civilization. During the Woodland Period, Indigenous Peoples began to make significant progress in agricultural development, started staking out good hunting and fishing areas instead of following migrating herds, and even began to make pottery and engage in trade with neighboring cultures via the Mississippi River and its tributaries. It was during this time of unusual stability that Indigenous People of the Upper Mississippi River Valley began to become truly more advanced in their culture and, as a result, they now had the time and resources to invest in such luxuries as developing complex burial systems for their dead the very first burial mounds. Over the nearly 2,000 years of the Woodland Period, Native American burial mounds were built in a variety of shapes and sizes, ranging from A Woodland Period bowl. Image from Beloit College's Logan Museum. simple, circular shapes to complex "effigy" shapes. These mound types gradually evolved over time, and were used for both burial and ceremonial purposes. Conical Mounds (500 b.c a.d.) (Type Found in the Red Hill Creek Valley- Hamilton, Ontario and throughout Southern Ontario) *Note the Thunderbird Mound at Magwood Park is a combination of a Conical Mound and an Effigy Mound-Construction of this Mound started during archaic period and proceeded into Woodland period. Also Conical Mounds found at Bear Mound Complex in High Park, Toronto, Ontario. Conical mounds are mounds that are circular in shape. The most common and easiest to build, they once numbered in the thousands, and could be found scattered throughout the entire Upper Mississippi River Valley. Conical mounds were typically used for burial, but were likely also used for religious, political and/or familial purposes. Conical mounds

2 were most typical of the Early Woodland Period ( b.c.), but were of course built throughout the entire Woodland Period (500 b.c a.d.). Linear Mounds (100 b.c.-600 a.d.) (Type found in the Red Hill Creek Valley- Hamilton, Ontario and throughout Southern Ontario also found at Bear Mound Complex in High Park, Toronto, Ontario) Linear mounds began to be developed during the Middle Woodland Period (100 b.c.-600 a.d.). Though some literature on the subject claims that linear mounds were used for burial purposes, Lezendorf disagrees, stating, "Linear mounds were not used for burial but may have been used to show connections between various groups buried in the conical mounds. With little to no evidence in the linear pattern, archaeologists have to speculate on their purpose." 4 According to Lezendorf, the linear mounds most likely served to help organize the various conical mounds, perhaps to associate the burial mounds of various family members. However, it is possible some linear mound burials do exist, still awaiting discovery, so the question of the purpose of the linear mounds is still open to debate. Compound Mounds (100 b.c.-600 a.d. Also found throughout Southern Ontario and also Bear Mound Complex, High Park, Toronto, Ontario) Compound mounds are essentially a combination of conical and linear mounds. Compound mounds did contain burials, combining aspects of conical burial mounds and the apparently organizational function of linear mounds. Assuming that linear mounds were indeed developed to associate various mounds or mound groups, compound mounds were likely an innovation in mound building design intended to more efficiently link together the burial mounds of several generations The four types of mounds, clockwise, from top right: conical, linear, effigy, compound. Image adapted from Effigy Mounds: A Guide to Effigy Mounds National Monument of family members. Compound mounds were thus a logical evolution of mound building during the Middle Woodland Period. Effigy Mounds ( a.d., also found throughout Southern Ontario, example, Thunderbird Mound, Toronto, Ontario, and Serpent Mound, near Rice Lake Ontario) Effigy mounds began to appear during the Late Woodland Period ( a.d.). Effigy mounds were identical in function to conical mounds, but in form they were far more complex, emulating the shapes of numerous types of animals including but not limited to birds, bear, deer, bison, lynx, turtles, panthers and/or "water spirits" 5, such as Thunderbirds. As was discussed previously, the creation of effigy mounds likely reflected Indigenous Peoples religious beliefs, beliefs in which wildlife apparently figured prominently. In the area of northeast Iowa that contains Effigy Mounds National Monument, birds and bears make up all of the known effigy mounds, though effigy mounds of the other listed types can be found in south-eastern Minnesota, southern Wisconsin, northern Illinois as far as Lake Michigan, Ohio, the south and southeast US also into Canada, Thunderbird Mound, Toronto, Ontario, and Serpent Mound, Rice Lake, Ontario.

3 The Bear Mound Complex in High Park is a Hopewell Mound Complex, built 2,000 years ago. It is in exact alignment with Ursa Major (Big Bear) and Ursa Minor (Little Bear) during the Spring Equinox. What is unusual about this site is that the opening to the complex is the North instead of the east, which is the most common opening at other mound sites. This verifies oral tradition that the Bear Mound Complex in Toronto, was built in honour of the Bear Spirit, (Hnyagwai) which is the Guardian of the Northern Doorway, in Iroquoian culture. Also the fact that the Big Bear and Little Bear are directly over it confirms to us our oral tradition, that this site was used as a place for springtime rituals, whereas the women and medicine people would gather, to not only give thanks for the first Medicine of the our Calendar cycle, which is the maple, but was a place that was also used for burial rituals during the first Ogiiwii of our calendar cycle (Feast of the Dead) each year. All of the sacred medicines are located nearby in High Park, so this site was used not only for medicine rituals but also burial rituals. There was a village site located at the corner of Keele and Bloor, as well as the Erie-Neutral-Seneca-Mohawk village, of Taiaiagon, which was located very close by on the Humber River. It is also the site of the Thunderbird Mound which was erected in honour of the Thunderbird Priest at that time. Both the Bear Mound Complex and the Thunderbird Mound were built by the ancestors of the Erie-Neutral people and are now under the caretaking/stewardship responsibility of Taiaiako n Historical Preservation Services along with Six Nations Grand River Territory Confederacy Council, as granted by the Erie Mound builders Tribal Nation, descendants of the original mound builders. At the time of the original Mound builders, both sites were protected by tree growth, therefore would have been much warmer place to be, than today, which at times can somewhat cold and windy, depending on the time of the year that you visit these sites. Effigy Mounds National Monument contains most of the Woodland Period burial mounds remaining in northeast Iowa. Located near Harper's Ferry, Iowa and Prairie du Chien, Wisconsin on bluffs overlooking the Mississippi River, Effigy Mounds National Monument is a very well designed and organized tribute to northeast Iowa's ancient mound builders. Founded in 1949 by Presidential Proclamation, the park contains 13 miles of trails offering easy access to nearly all of the mounds. It is divided into two main sections: the "North Unit", and the "South Unit", which are physically separated from each other by the natural barrier of the Yellow River.

4 The North Unit is the larger of the two divisions, and includes the most mounds and trails. The main trail in the North Unit provides views of numerous mounds of all types, and several side trails branch off the main trail to afford visitors access to additional mound groups and several beautiful views of the Mississippi River. These secondary trails include Fire Point Trail Loop, The Twin Views Side Trail, The Third Scenic View Side Trail, and the Hanging Rock Trail. As one leaves the Visitor's Center to begin hiking the sylvan beauty of the main trail, they are confronted almost immediately by a group of three 2,000-year-old mounds only 150 feet from the start of the trail. One of these mounds was found to contain about a dozen bundle burials, and was also rich in a number of ancient artifacts: "Besides burials, a copper breastplate and shells from the Gulf Coast, ceremonial obsidian points from the Rocky Mountains, and Knife River flint from North Dakota were found in the mound." 6 A second mound also once contained an altar where cremated bones had been placed as part of a ritual burial practice common to the Middle Woodland Period. The third mound, unfortunately, was partly destroyed by the creation of a logging road, but it has since been reconstructed. The next half-mile of hiking is uphill and fairly difficult, as the majority of the mounds to be found in the monument are located on the bluff tops on the west side of the Mississippi River. After visitors negotiate this zig-zaggy, uphill trail, the ground levels and they are soon rewarded with a clear view of two compound mounds and, further on, the beautiful "Little Bear" mound. The Fire Point Trail Loop is the most popular trail as it is the most accessible and the shortest, being only two miles in total length from the Visitor's Center and back again. The Fire Point Loop Trail actually overlaps the North Unit Trail for much of its early length, and the Visitor's Center has a nice guide specifically covering the Fire Point Trail and its features. These features, besides those already described, include: Little Bear Mound "Little Bear" mound, now outlined by gravel and small stones for ease of viewing, was built around 1,000 years ago, near the end of the Woodland Period, during the era of the "Effigy Mound builders". The Little Bear Mound is 80 feet long and 40 feet wide, but

5 only a 2-3 feet tall at it highest point. It contains no burials, but layers of charcoal remnants were found at its heart. This indicates that the Little Bear Mound was once adorned with ceremonial fires, meaning that it once had important ritual significance. Fire Point Procession Also known as the Chain of Pearls, the Fire Point Procession is composed of no less than 19 conical mounds in a slightly curved line extending from the main trail to the bluffs overlooking the river. This procession of nineteen mounds terminates in A view of the Fire Point Procession. a larger conical mound know as the Fire Point This string of 19 conical mounds Mound. terminates in Fire Point Mound, Fire Point Mound which overlooks the Mississippi One of three large mounds overlooking the River. Mississippi at the end of the Fire Point Procession, Fire Point Mound was found to contain at least 8 burials, including tools made from bird bones and bear teeth, and a copper breastplate, among other things. The end of Fire Point also offers majestic views of both the Mississippi River, the Yellow River, and of the South Unit region. Eight miles further south, Pikes Peak State Park can also be seen, overlooking the confluence of the Wisconsin and Mississippi Rivers. Eagle Rock The remainder of the loop has many more scenic overlooks, including Eagle Rock, around which remains a small stand of original prairie, including spiderwort, lead plant, blue-eyed grass, yellow star grass, and flowering spurge. Just after the Little Bear Mound, the trail branches off to the right (east) towards the river, looping around and returning back to the North Unit Trail, which is why it is also referred to as the "Fire Point Trail Loop". Coming to the confluence of the end of the Fire Point Loop and the North Unit Trail, turn right to continue on to view the remainder of the mounds of the North Unit. Past the Little Bear Mound, the North Unit Trail turns into the Hanging Rock Trail. Completing the Hanging Rock Trail hike will take up to three hours or more to complete, and there are also several side trails and numerous mounds to be explored, so be sure to be prepared with food, water, reliable clothing, quality footwear and an early start. Great Bear Mound At 138 feet long and 65 feet wide, the Great Bear Mound is the largest known bear mound in the world. It is also unusual in that it lies on its left side, unlike all of the other bear mounds in Effigy Mounds National Monument which all lie on their right sides. This mound also has a very low profile, and is more difficult to see than the Little Bear Mound, though it is certainly more impressive in size, once one discerns its massive proportions.

6 The Great Bear Mound. (Click for a larger image) "Baby Bear" Mound Continuing down the Hanging Rock Trail, a short walk off to the right of the trail is a large, linear mound that points to another, smaller bear mound. This bear mound, at 67 feet, is one of the smaller bear effigies in the park, and has affectionately come to be known as the "Baby Bear" Mound. Restored Prairie Area Further down the trail, the hiker will come into an open prairie area containing a series of conical and linear mounds off to the left, as well as the remnants of a lynx mound that was destroyed by farming. These mounds are located in a field that is being restored to its original prairie form through controlled burns, the remnants of the lynx mound becoming briefly visible after each of these burn offs. Even further down the North Unit Trail there is another side trail called the Twin Views Side Trail. This trail contains one mound at the end of the trail, and also overlooks the Mississippi River, with a view of Hanging Rock. Views from this trail are also excellent, and when conditions are right, bald eagles can be seen swooping down from the cliffs, hunting for fish. A short walk off the main trail, Third Scenic View contains five more mounds, including a linear mound, a bear effigy, and three conical mounds. The best view of Hanging Rock can be seen here from here, as well as a good view of the valley below, which was once a large Woodland Period village. The remainder of the Hanging Rock trail is fairly arduous, and it should only be taken if time and resources allow. Two linear mounds can be seen at the midpoint of the trail, which drops down quickly to a ravine, requiring an additional climb up to the far northern hill which contains Hanging Rock. The trail terminates at Hanging Rock, with a string of 6 conical mounds and a compound mound along the way.

7 The South Unit, though smaller in scale, has perhaps the most spectacular mound groups in the park, if not in the world. It is divided into two basic areas, the "Compound Mound" and the "Marching Bear Group". The South Unit is a little more remote than is the North Unit. To reach the South Unit from the Visitor's Center, turn left onto Highway 76 and go about a half mile or so, where you will see a sign indicating parking and picnicking facilities on the east (river) side of the road. The entrance to the South Unit is on the west side of the road, so take care as you will need to cross Highway 76 to enter. After negotiating the vehicle barrier, hikers must endure a simple but relatively steep trail that climbs for nearly a mile. On the way to the main mound groups, off to the right of the trail, the hiker is treated to two linear mounds and bear effigy mounds, unmarked on the map save for a single green dot. Shortly thereafter, the lush green canopy gives way to open prairie festooned with native grasses and wildflowers. Thie area is also recovered prairie, maintained by controlled burnings by park personnel, as is the prairie area in the North Unit. As Lezendorf explains, "Since the late 1980s, the National Park Service has used controlled or prescribed burns to keep the blackberry, sumac and aspen from overtaking the prairie. Indian grass is the dominant tall grass. Other grasses include big and little bluestem. Blazing star, yellow coneflowers and various asters add color to the prairie in August." 7 The trail having leveled off, the hiking becomes more pleasant. After a modest walk through the waving grasses, the hiker is confronted by a fork in the trail. Taking the left fork, the hiker shortly leaves the restored prairie and reenters the forest. About a halfmile's walk brings one to the Compound Mound Group, composed of three substantial structures: Bear Effigy Mound the first mound of the Compound Mound group is a large bear effigy. The bear was and is a powerful animal both in the myth (and the reality) of Indigenous People lore, and may have been used as the symbol of a particular family group or clan. This mound is not a burial mound, but was probably used as part of Indigenous Peoples rituals. Bird Effigy Mound following the bear effigy is a spectacular bird effigy. With its 212-foot wingspan, this effigy mound is the largest bird effigy in the park, and one of the largest in the world. Bird effigies may be intended to represent the Thunderbird, another powerful animal of Indigenous People mythology. This mound, like its bear mound partner, likely also had a primarily ritual purpose. Compound Mound finally, at the end of the trail lays the Compound Mound, a huge, 417-foot mound structure. This mound contains 7 conical mounds connected by its linear segments. With a view of the river after the leaves have fallen in the autumn, this magnificent structure

8 and its ideal location were likely reserved for an important clan, its great length likely indicating that the clan was a long-lived one, with many generations. Returning back up the path takes one back to the fork. Take a left to proceed on to the park's most famous mound group, the Marching Bear Group. The path soon ends, merging with an old military road. Built in 1840, the military road was used to carry goods from Fort Crawford, in what is now Prairie du Chien, to Fort Atkinson to the west, but fell into disuse some time later. It remains as a serviceable, if somewhat rough trail, now serving as the path to the Marching Bear Group at the top of the hill. Near the top of the trail, after climbing some ways, the military road veers off, and a vast, open canopy beneath and between the outspreading trees reveals a magnificent avenue of mounds, the like of which cannot be seen anywhere else in the world. A view of the Marching Bear Group from the north. There are a total of 10 bears in the group, stretching over 1/3 of a mile, two of which can be viewed here. Click here for a larger version, click The monuments of ancient North America do not compare in glory with the pyramids of Egypt. Not even the massive Monk's Mound at Cahokia, which rivals in size even the Great Pyramid of Giza, can be truly said to be an accomplishment that is truly comparable to that of the Great Pyramid. However, even though the monuments of Egypt and other nations are technically superior and aesthetically more pleasing from classical artistic standards, the subtle, natural glory of the Marching Bear Group, outspread amidst the lush, green canopy of the North American forest, is quite impressive in its own here for a larger, outlined version. right. The scale of the work that went into the building of these mounds, and the thoughtful manner in which they were laid out, is a marked achievement in the history of Indigenous People culture. Archaic Mound Construction-King George Island Mound Site-Louisiana Middle and Late Archaic Period Mound Construction Gagliano (1963) was the first to suggest the possibility of southeastern United States mound building during the archaic period in the Lower Mississippi River Valley. One site he considered representative of this activity was the Banana Bayou Mound site (16IV24). Gagliano s corrected radiocarbon date from the Banana Bayou Mound site, Located in the coastal marshes of south-central Louisiana, was 4440 ± 263 B.P. (Saunders And Allen 1994: Table 1). The radiocarbon date and associated artifacts from the first Construction phase of the mound, including fired clay objects, gravel, charcoal, and two

9 Chert spalls, placed this conical mound within the archaic time frame. Excavations at the Hornsby site (16SH21) (Manual 1983), Monte Sano (16EBR17) (Webb 1968), and LSU Campus Mounds site (16EBR06) (Neuman 1988) indicate Middle to Late Archaic period ( B.C.) Mound construction in southeast Louisiana. Prior to the 1960s, a bias existed against archaic mounds. The general consensus was that mound construction was not possible without the more complex level of social and labor organization brought about by the increased populations and sedentism characteristic of the former Woodland cultures and believed to be lacking in Archaic cultures (Russo 1996:260). In the past (see Russo 1994:89, 1996:259), highly organized behavior was deemed unattainable by the hunting and gathering cultures of the Archaic, and construction of monumental earthen mounds was considered impossible by unranked and unstratified societies. Anthropologists during the 1950s viewed archaic cultures as generally small, mobile, nonagricultural, and technologically unsophisticated (Sassamanand Ledbetter 1996). A revised outlook encompasses a great deal of variation in settlement mobility, co-resident group structure, and sociopolitical organization (Sassaman and Ledbetter 1996). Archaic mound functions are still unknown. Currently there are at least three feasible interpretations. Archaic mounds may have served as territorial markers for trade activity on waterways, as burial mounds, and/or for ceremonial functions (Gibson 2001; Russo 1994b; Sassaman and Ledbetter 1996; Saunders 1994). The functions are not mutually exclusive. It is known that the ancient Thunderbird mounds were also from the archaic period, which makes them different than the ones built during the Woodland period. The early Thunderbird Mounds were built in such a way that their wings almost touched each other at the tip whereas the newer Thunderbird mounds had their wings outstretched as if they were in flight. The highly complex culture of the Central American society of the Mayans had collapsed by 800 AD. They had a solar calendar that was more accurate than that of the European Christian world. The highly complex Aztec culture of Mexico had not yet formed by 999 AD. There is no indication that the Mounbuilders had such a complex astronomical solar calendar. Yet they well knew the yearly seasonal cycle. Many of the Mississippian Mounbuilder's temple complexes, such as the Ohio Serpent mound complex, were astronomical observatories. Knowledge of the proper seasons for planting was a necessity for agrarian societies such as the Moundbuilders. This knowledge seems to have been the secret knowledge of the priestly class, which helped them to hold their high distinction in their society. But with the approaching end of the Christian year of 999 AD the people of Tellico had none of the Christian concerns for the Millennium. und+complex&source=web&ots=xkdboclrlg&sig=3h9- TZQk4XcEAegKYjzddqIoaZY#PPA34,M1 Fort Ancient Site-Ohio

10 this site would be seen as a sacred and holy place, a complex for priests, inspiring awe and respect for those who built it. But, since it's Native American, it's seen as simply a rude fort or some type of calendar? Moundbuilders and Mississippian Culture prehistoric moundbuilder culture was found in the SE & mid-western US, especially the Ohio River Valley where native peoples lived in sedentary villages & built monumental architecture in the form of huge earthen mounds some 2,000 of them between Wisconsin & Florida between found in Ohio Valley alone these mounds used for burials--they were not temples, but temples were often built on top of them as were residences for the elites mound-building began about 2000 B.C. w/ small mounds that individual clans used for burial by 800 B.C. Adena phase: the plots grew in size now were huge burial chambers & lots of grave goods used the Adena had pottery, copper working, and cloth weaving but were still primarily h/gs.the Adena phase fades out about the time of Christ contemporaneous to them--about 200 BC to about 500 AD--came the Hopewell peoples created entire mortuary landscapes of mounds and enclosures Mound City Ohio--a project covers 13 acres, mounds linked by a network of circles, squares, & octagons joined by avenues the symbolism of this is lost, b/c the only real way to appreciate is from the air average mound is 30 ft high, 100 feet across, a volume of about 500,000 cubic feet: --would take about 200,000 hours of earthmoving w/ simple tools & baskets the largest mound is the Great Serpent Mound which is a huge snake (from the air) there is differential treatment in the burials some had log-lined rooms & ceremonial artifacts w/ game animals & birds of prey symbolism (clan?) this indicates a hierarchical social structure evidence also seen of elaborate trade networks: obsidian, from Black Hills, alligator teeth from FL, copper from Lake Superior, conch shells from the Gulf of MX were all found these were made into status items and found in differential burial sites the Hopewell people were also primarily h/gs living in small villages and hamlets surrounding their mounds the early mound builders were h/gs who gradually developed agriculture: the Late Archaic sites-- about b.c.-- have grinding stones in top layers --resting on evidence of fish resource use --which is often the first steps in domestication of plants by this period, some evidence in eastern US of cultivating sumpweed & sunflowers & using squash and gourds earlier theories argued squash came from Mexico, but new evidence suggests it was domesticated independently during Woodland period (700 B.C.- A.D. 1000) maize appears in the region but these were not significant in the diet at first some suggest they don't really become important until about 700 A.D. and aren't fully utilized until about 1000 A.D. Mississippian culture then evolved about 1000 A.D. when maize & beans became the staple diet & centers of urban culture w/ hierarchical social-religious structure gradually grew up around the mounds the cluster of art motifs and rituals associated with these mounds is known as the "Southern Cult" it included artistic symbols of weeping and forked eyes, sunbursts, human eyes on open hands, arrows w/ attached lobes, pictures of jaguars, and elaborate crosses the cross motif was central & probably represented the sacred fire which linked earth to the Sun deity a preoccupation with celestial movements, fire, wind, sun, and human sacrifice also appear in artistic representations these symbols may have been linked to warfare as well as to fertility archeologists debate to extent to which these traits diffused from Mesoamerica a few generations ago, archeologists thought the traits were similar enough to argue for if fusion but more evidence shows there are as many differences as similarities w/ Mesoamerican cultural traits some were probably independently created while others may have been diffused the Mississippians were hierarchical but not completely centralized, like the Aztecs every household probably participated in subsistence-- even chiefs probably very few full time craftsmen, but made beautiful crafts of copper, marble, shell, obsidian, mica, pearls, & dyed turkey feathers; also had beautiful pottery, many tribes grouped in this designation: the major language groups: Caddo an--west of Miss, River and Muskogee--east of the river there were also speakers of Southern Iroquois (Cherokee) and languages related to the Siouan languages (Catawba s & Tutelos) the most significant archeological sites of the Mississippian era are: Cahokia--largest town & ceremonial center in pre-historic N. Am., near St. Louis: A.D , it's peak pop of 30-40,000 in about 5 square

11 miles on the eastern bank of the Mississippi River had Monk's Mound--largest earthwork in prehistoric N. Am. its base was 1,100 feet long and 790 feet wide--it & covered 16 acres it had 4 terraces that rose up to 100 feet high-- (about 1/2 height of Temple of Sun) the mound once had temple on it it was surrounded by high wooden palisades observation area nearby to chart position of the sun : this was a circle of 48 poles 410 ft across called Woodhenge by some and over 100 burial mounds of the elite were scattered through out the plazas, ritual precincts, and ball fields one burial mound had a platform made of 20,000 shell beads, nearby were graves of 3 high status men & women, 4 decapitated men, & more than 50 young women-probably strangled, all probably killed at funeral; may have been family & servants 800 arrowheads, copper & mica sheets, 15 polished stone disks used in a game also found in the mounds.cahokia- was center for 9 large settlements w/ own chiefs & mounds, & for about 40 small palisade hamlets & farmsteads Etowah, in N GA was similar--it lasted from A.D to end of 1400s it has a population of about 3,000 at its' peak and was also stockade it contained 3 large mounds--largest over 6 stories high.moundville in what is now Tuscaloosa Alabama also an important chiefdom in the Mississippian world from a small village in A.D it grew into a ceremonial center surrounded by a palisade between grew to height of power, supported about 3,000 people had 20 large platform mounds around a rectangular central plaza of about 79 acres the largest mound rose about 60 feet they were also a hierarchical chiefdom both Cahokia and Moundville seemed to have had a small tribute-paying hinterland--about 9 miles worth and they also had alliances between cities up to 45 miles apart the extent to which this culture developed independently or was diffused from Central America is a matter of great debate they traded w/ Central America and may also adopted some of the religious practices of Central America others think this was independent invention, reflecting something in the human spirit Miss culture flourished from 900 A.D. until about 1350 A.D. in decline & what happened to them is also a matter of great speculation archeologists are hesitant to speculate on what happened to these people from about at the time of contact, SE Indians were no longer building large mounds and their dense population had dispersed still, the use of mounds for ceremonies survived into historic times thus some archeologists argue that the shift was one of emphasis "within an unbroken ritual tradition" (Knight, p. 280) moreover, other Mississippian era culture traits also survived into historic times first fruits ceremonies centered rituals for fertility renewal are done for 8 days in the early summer the Green Corn Rite, in August at harvest time also has very old roots a focus on burial also survives as does use of mounds for ceremonies the use of sacred fire and the black drink also continued but direct lineal descent of current residents of the SE from Mississippian culture is a matter of controversy, except for the Natchez of lower LA, who were clearly a Mississippian chiefdom at the time of contact archeologists hesitate to claim certainty in arguing for direct links between historic and pre-historic SE nations the nation whose connections to the Mississippians is the most disputed is the Cherokee until the 1960s, most archeologists accepted that the Cherokee had probably migrated into the SE from the mid-west in the early historic period new data, however, challenges this and most archeologists accept that the people known as the Cherokee probably occupied their historic homelands since at least A.D and the real? is: what happened to these large "civilizations perhaps the forced labor to make the mounds led to a revolt and the abandonment of mound building there could have been a climate or ecological change--some evidence of drying that dispersed people perhaps disease brought by trade networks decimated populations whatever the cause, by the time we have good documents, many of the Mississippian cultures appeared to be in decline. The Hopewell Indians were prominent in Illinois during the 2nd mound building epoch. This period stretched from 500 B.C. to 400 A.D. It is also known as the Woodland Period. The Hopewell was flourishing from 200 B.C. to 400 A.D.

12 Hopewell Indians obtained most of their food by hunting, fishing, and gathering. They did not begin growing their own food until about 200 B.C. They grew small amounts of corn and domesticated sunflower seeds. During their burial ceremonies they used the mineral galena. They found this along the banks of the Mississippi River. They also found and used copper for their ceremonies. The Hopewell used their mounds for burial purposes. (In both the first and third mound building epochs, burial mounds were used but not as often as during the second epoch.) The Hopewell burial mounds are fantastic. The Hopewell buried their dead with many treasures. These items included: precious metals, beautiful pottery, and intricate statues and carvings. The Hopewellian culture began to die between the years of 300 and 400 A.D. Hopewell mound building, ceremonialism, and long-distance trade networks died, too. There are some theories about the demise of the Illinois Hopewell. The climate may have become too cold and moist for the proper cultivation of corn. Another reason could be that other Native Americans discovered the copper and galena deposits and were no longer interested in trade with the Hopewell. These are only suggestions because there is no evidence of what actually happened to the Hopewell culture. The Mississippian Period is in the 3rd mound building epoch from A.D. This was a period where towns began to "spring" up and reliance on agriculture became widespread. This was also the time of the Mississippian Indians. During this time, mound sites in the outline of human hands, snakes, birds, and so on were constructed. Other monuments were also made, such as American Woodhenge. This is a structure like that of Stonehenge. It may have been made to be used as a sort of calendar, marking solstices and equinoxes. It is a precise circle made of 48 wooden posts. Also during the Mississippian Period more tools were made. Bows and arrows were made and used for hunting and fighting battles. Stone hoes were used for farming. They probably made wooden tools as well, but these items can not be found because the wood, most likely, has decayed. The Mississippians made ropes and cables out of mulberry bark. They also learned how to make canoes, rafts, and log bridges. The art of the Mississippian Period was more abundant and diverse than that of the Hopewell people. They made pottery, wove baskets, created shell beads, cut out copper ornaments, and fashioned leather clothing. They also carved statues

13 out of stone or cedar. These statues typically resembled men and women in kneeling positions or dancers in elaborate bird costumes. These statues were sometimes covered with copper sheeting. There are also pictures of warriors and hunters. These images often are shown in profile or a combination of profile and frontal view. The faces of these warriors and hunters often have what resembles a tear coming from their eyes. This may be a representation of the warrior's paints worn during ceremonies or battles. The Mississippian Indians also had abstract images in their artwork. Zigzags, circles, crosses, and diamonds were most commonly found. Agriculture also played a role in the Mississippian Indian's life. Corn or maize became a main part of their diet sometime between 800 and 1000 A.D. Around this same time period; the Mississippian people began to grow beans. They grew kidney, navy, snap, pole, and pinto beans. They commonly grew the beans in the same fields that they grew the corn. The beans would climb up the corn stalks. Despite their breakthrough in agriculture, they continued to hunt and fish. Also, the Mississippian people usually added salt to their foods. They obtained the salt by trading with people close to the Mississippi River. Trade became more important to the Mississippian Indians too. They traded items for salt, mica, copper, shells, galena, and black chert (a material used to make arrow heads). The major trade center in Illinois was Cahokia. This was a village protected by large walls. The Mississippian Indians of Illinois frequently came to Cahokia; it lies on the Mississippi River and that made trade easier. Unfortunately, Cahokia's river location also made it susceptible to attacks. During the years of 1531 to 1543, Cahokia was invaded frequently by the Spanish. The Mississippian Period was a time of great learning and great innovations. The Mississippian people developed many new things such as bridges, canoes, and rafts. They also made numerous tools and created beautiful artwork. The Mississippian Period ended in the year 1731 and the Mississippian Indians live only in artifacts and history. Turtle Mound Site New York The white pine has great symbolic importance for the Haudenosaunee, since it is the Tree of Peace, which is used to represent the formation of the confederacy. Planting two white pines side by side represents the spirit of friendship and trust between the Haudenosaunee

14 and non-indians, while asserting the Iroquois commitment to sovereignty and cultural identity. Beliefs The Mound builders believed that there was an upper world in which they lived, and a lower world. Each was inhabited by spirits associated with specific places and things. They observed their beliefs with ceremonies, myths and symbols, and social customs, rules and taboos. Shamans served as religious leaders and healers, though their powers could be used for both good and ill. The main purpose of their ceremonies was to further the success of crops or hunting, or as a method of healing. The Mound builders paid great attention to their dreams. They believed that diseases were caused by dreams or animals, though they had a number of more concrete methods of curing the sick such as herbals, sweats, dietary changes and massage in addition to the more spiritual remedies. The dead were buried with their heads to the east in the ground or under piles of rocks, their possessions interred with them. The yearly cycle of the Mound builders was marked by six major festivals, each lasting a week or less. The First New Moon of Spring was marked in March. The Green Corn Ceremony was held in late June or early July, followed by the Mature Green Corn Ceremony about 45 days later. The Great New Moon Festival marked the beginning of the New Year in October. A cleansing festival was held ten days later at which time the old sacred fire was extinguished and a new one lit. A sixth festival was held during the winter, celebrated by feasting and dancing. THE FIRST NEW MOON OF SPRING-

15 March Martius- sacred to Mars Gender Equality Month--Time to honour both genders; time to meditate on the equality of women and men, on the respect due to both women and men, and on Goddess-God manifesting as woman and man. 20 Vernal Equinox Spring Equinox-Marks the beginning of Spring and point of equal daylight and darkness; celebrates first, annual, and perpetual creation with egg hunts and exchanges. Iroquois Maple Ceremony- thanksgiving for the Maple tree and its sugar is held at the Spring Equinox. * 3/20 (8:07 p.m. EDT): Spring Equinox--Marks the beginning of Spring and point of equal daylight and darkness; celebrates first, annual, and perpetual creation with egg hunts and exchanges. * 3/20 to 3/21: Festival of First Creation--when Goddess-God Amenet-Amen (as Goose and Gander) laid and fertilized the Cosmic Egg from which all emerged (Old Egyptian);

16 when Goddess-God Teteoinan-Teteoitah created all Deities and all existence (Aztec); when concentrated matter flared forth to make the universe (scientific theory). Iroquois believe Awenhai/Sky Woman created the Sun, Moon, and Stars from Her body. Before the Spring Equinox is the Thunderers Ceremony, to honour Heno, the Thunderbeing for bringing the Spring Rains. * 3/18 to 3/21: Iroquois Thunder Ceremony--in thanksgiving for the rains. * 4/17 to 4/20: Iroquois Corn-Planting Ceremony--in thanksgiving for the corn seed. Iroquois believe Awenhai/Sky Woman descended from the Sky into the watery abyss, and landed on Turtle, on whom She created Earth. * 5/16 to 5/19: Iroquois Strawberry Ceremony--in thanksgiving for the strawberry harvest. Iroquois consider themselves kin to all of Nature. * 6/14 to 6/17: Iroquois Green Bean Ceremony--in thanksgiving for the bean harvest; celebrated with tobacco offerings, singing, drumming, dancing, and feasting. * 6/20 to 6/21: Feast of the Great Spirit/Great Mystery that encompasses Mother Earth and Father Sky - honoring Deity as Orenda (Iroquois), Asgaya Galun Lati (Cherokee), Wakan Tanka (Lakota) & Awonawilona (Zuni) * 6/20 to 6/24: Feast of the Sun--honoring God-Goddess as Ra-Rait (Old Egyptian); God as Helios (Old Greek), Endeka Gaakwa (Iroquois), Nunda Igehi (Cherokee) & Yatokka Taccu (Zuni). * 6/21 (2:06 p.m. EDT): Summer Solstice--Marks the beginning of Summer and the longest day and shortest night of the year; celebration of the light with dancing around a bonfire. * 6/29 eve to 7/1 eve: Feast of the Moon--honoring Goddess as Selene (Old Greek), Soika Gaakwa (Iroquois), Nunda Sunna Yehi (Cherokee), Yaonakka Citta (Zuni), Ixchel (Maya) & Manat (Old Arabic-Sufi). * 7/14 to 7/17: Iroquois Green Corn Ceremony--in thanksgiving for the maize harvest. * 9/11 to 9/14: Iroquois Squash Ceremony--in thanksgiving for the squash harvest. * 12/22 (1:08 a.m. EST): Winter Solstice/Solar New Year--Marks the beginning of Winter and the shortest day and longest night of the year; celebration of the darkness with dancing near the hearth fire. * 1/22 to 1/30: Iroquois Mid-Winter Ceremony--for continuation of all life-sustaining things; celebrated with tobacco offerings, confession of offenses, singing, drumming, dancing, name- giving, and dream-telling. Iroquois believe Awenhai/Sky Woman created the Sun, Moon, and Stars from Her body.

17 Lizard Mound Site: Three circular mounds in an east-west row align with the spring equinox sunset. All circular mounds, large and small, served as sighting-points to, from, or along. Other mounds point toward the rising and setting moon at its maximum southern swing in an 18.6-year cycle, whereby to reset solar calendars and 18.6-year lunar cycle. **Once more assessment and mapping is done of the Bear Mound Complex it will be determined whether or not it was used to map sighting points or mapped out as a form of calendar, for the various ceremonies of the calendar cycle, or etc. Because it resembles the head of bear, it would be symbolic, of the Bear coming out of hibernation in the Spring, and the re-birth of the medicines and plant life used to sustain and heal our people. The spring is also the time of re-birth and regeneration. So this site would have also been used for fertility rituals as well, as healing, medicine, and from what I have also found that the birth of the Great Law was on April 5th as well, shortly after the Spring Equinox, which may also coincide with what Mary saw, as people coming to the mound to make peace. What she saw was a gathering of the people from various nations, combating the birth of the Great Peace, which was actually at Onondaga Lake originally. The Great Bear and the Six Hunters or The Seven Stars of the Dipper Six men went out hunting, for a long time they found no game. One of their number said he was sick ( he was lazy) and they had to make a litter of two poles and a blanket, and four carried him. The sixth member of the party came behind bringing the kettle. Besides this each man had his own load to carry. At last, when the hunters were getting very hungry, they came upon bear tracks. They were s hungry that when they saw the tracks they dropped their companion and their burdens and each man ran as fast as he could after the bear. At first the tracks looked old but they thought, We will overtake the bear sometime. Later they saw that the tracks couldn t be more than three days old. The farther the men went the fresher the tracks were till the men said, To-morrow we will overtake the bear. The man they had carried so long was not tired and when they dropped him and he knew He was going to be left he jumped up and ran on after them. As he was fresher than they were he soon passed them and killed the bear. The men in their race after the bear didn t notice that they were going up all of the time. Many people saw them in the air, as they ran along, always rising. When they overtook the bear and the lazy man, they had reached the sky and there they have remained to this day and can be seen any starlit night. The man who carried the kettle in the bend of the Dipper, the middle star in the handle and a small star which is the only one near any other of the Dipper stars is the kettle. The Bear is at the lower outside corner. Every Autumn, when the first frost comes, one can see on the leaves of the oak tree drops of oil, not water, and this is the oil and blood of the Bear. On seeing it the Ongwe onwe say, The lazy man has killed the Bear. A Traditional Seneca Story in Honour of the Bear ** Note- The Big Bear Constellation ( Ursa Major) and the Little Bear Constellation Ursa Minor) can be seen directly above the Bear Mound in High Park during the Spring Solstice. It is known that the Bear Mounds were used as a ceremonial grounds to honor the women, as well as there are a grove of sugar maples growing at the foot of the Big Bear Mound, the maple being one of the first sustainers of our people. There are 12 burial mounds in the Bear Mound Complex. Also note that during the evolution of the Wendat Confederacy, the Bear Nation was the first nation of the Wendat, and there are 12 clans within in the Wendat Confederacy. The Wendat had very strong ties to this sacred place at High Park, and High Park was used as a ceremonial grounds and burial place. The Bear Mounds not only are a burial grounds but also a ceremonial grounds, that spans back to the time of the Hopewell.

18 Origin of Medicine Chief Mt. Pleasant, one of the Bear Clan, relates that once on a time a sickly old man, covered with sores, entered the Ongwe onwe village where over each longhouse was placed the sign of the clan of its possessor; for instance, the beaver skin denoting the Beaver clan, the deer skin, the Deer clan. At each of these longhouses the old man applied for food and a night s lodging, but his repulsive appearance rendered him an object of scorn, and the Wolf, the Turtle, and the Heron had bidden the abject old man to pass on. At length, tired and weary, he arrived at a longhouse where a bear skin betokened the clanship of its owner. This he found inhabited by a kind-hearted woman who immediately refreshed him with food and spread out skins for his bed. Then she was instructed by the old man to go in search of certain herbs, which she prepared according to his directions, and through their efficacy he was soon healed. Then he commanded that she should treasure up this secret. A few days after, he sickened with a fever and again commanded a search for other herbs and was again healed. This being many times repeated he at last told his benefactress that his mission was accomplished, and that she was now endowed with all of the secrets for curing disease in all its forms, and that before her longhouse should grow a hemlock tree whose branches should reach high into the air above all others, to signify that the Bear should take precedence of all other clans, and that she and her clan should increase and multiply. A Haudenosaunee Traditional Story ** Note there are large old hemlock trees that grow naturally in High park, on the east ridge near Spring Creek along with a grove of Cedar trees which is known as Bear Medicine among our people. There are also some very old White Pine Trees growing in the same area, which is the Haudenosaunee symbol of the Great Tree of Peace. Erie-Neutral refer to the Thunder being as Henoh or Hinon, the Thunder and his acolytes, the Thunderers, who act as guardians of the Erie-Neutral welfare. Hinon is one of the supernatural beings most venerated by the Erie-Neutral. He is embodied in the Thunderbird, a huge mythical bird of prey common to all Indigenous nations north of Mexico. Apart from being a bringer of rain, the source of life and regeneration, his task in the great plan is to burn and destroy all of the negative supernatural forces deployed against humans. Thunderclaps are produced by the beating of Hinon s wings, lightening flashes from his piercing eyes when he blinks, unerringly striking the monsters, sorcerers and malevolent spirits. He taught the Erie-Neutral the secret of rainmaking. They called him grandfather (Tsutaa) and often brought him offerings or presents of tobacco, particularly on his first awakening each spring. (Reference for Thunderbird Mound at Magwood Park)