Clothing Pressure and Physiological Responses According to Boning Type of Non-stretchable Corsets

Fibers and Polymers 2015, Vol.16, No.2, 471-478 DOI 10.1007/s12221-015-0471-5 ISSN 1229-9197 (print version) ISSN 1875-0052 (electronic version) Clothing Pressure and Physiological Responses According to Boning Type of Non-stretchable Corsets Youngjoo Na* Department of Clothing & Textiles, Inha University, Incheon 402-751, Korea (Received August 11, 2014; Revised October 21, 2014; Accepted November 3, 2014) Abstract: We explored the effects of the boning corsets on women s health so that the body s physiological response to the corset s pressure was measured by the changes in heart rate, blood flow, perspiration, metabolism and their subjective pressure sensation when exercise. The corsets were reconstructed with or without boning inside the corsets with 10-20 % smaller waist girth of participants. Five women in their twenties volunteered to be our test subjects. The results vary according to the corset type and time period of exercise process. The peak corset pressure appeared almost 7 kpa with the most boning-type Corset B. Compared to the control group that did not wear a corset, the heart rate of the corset wearers decreased up to 15-20 % at most changes of Corset C, blood flow at the finger tips decreased 36 % at most changes of Corset C. And perspiration decreased up to 90 % at maximum of Corset A. The energy expenditure of corset wearers increased 14 % at most of Corset B due to higher corset pressure in sides even at the same activity level, which means that more energy is required to make the body torso move. Physiological responses were different according to corset type, that is, the most boning-type corset showed highest clothing pressure at 2 points, under armpit and near the side waist point and highest changes of energy metabolism, but showed least changes of heart rate and blood flow among the corsets. This is for it enhances blood circulation during exercise movement of body as seesaw effects of leveraging boning wires on blood vessels. Thus we can say the most boning type of corset affected the physiological responses and body comfort positively specially when body exercise, eventhough the boning inside corset enhanced clothing pressure partially. Keywords: Clothing pressure, Heart rate, Blood flow, Perspiration, Metabolism, Corset boning Introduction The ideal body shape for women in eighteenth century Europe could only be achieved with the help of a corset. The corset straightened the back and waist, causing the upper chest to be thrust forward. The upper chest appeared further accentuated by flatly pressing the belly and lifting the chest. The standard of attractiveness in eighteenth century Europe was that the ratio of the waist to the hip of a woman s body should be 0.7, meaning that the waist must be as small as 70 % of the hip [1]. Corsets could successfully reduce the women s waist-to-hip ratio to 0.72, which is near the ideal body shape of that time [2]. The corset increased female sexually attractive characteristics, such as a slim waist, wide hips, and a big bust. Such an emphasis made women feel more attractive and presented an image of high status [3]. During the eighteenth century in Europe, however, people became aware of the deleterious effects of corsets on the physical body, such as crushed blood vessels, displaced kidneys and stomach, and compressed livers and lungs. In the case of the liver, the corset actually pushed it upwards against the lungs and down towards the abdomen, making normal breathing impossible. It has also been argued that corsets reduced blood flow to the brain, causing some women who wore them to faint. However, even though corsets caused serious negative health effects, women continued to wear them to increase their self-esteem. Women in eighteenth century Europe felt a general sense of pride in their ability to *Corresponding author: youngjoo@inha.ac.kr publicly express their sexuality and beautify their bodies through corsetry. One woman in Europe at that time explained that the sensation of being tightly laced in a pair of elegant, well-made tightly fitting corsets was superb, and that she had never felt prouder or happier than at those times [4]. Even today, corsets continue to be popular among some women for similar aesthetic reasons. And the better pattern for tight fitting garments was studied for comfort pressure sensation [5]. Proper clothing pressure helps to hold the body in place, allows joints to move safely, and supports muscle firmness that delays the onset of muscle pain; thus, it increases exercise efficiency and protects both the skeletal body and muscles [6]. For these reasons, active debate on the harmful effects of corsets and whether or not to wear them is still relevant and ongoing [7]. Gau [8] performed a physiological study of women for which extreme corsetry hindered their ability to breathe deeply, forcing them to breathe only from their upper lungs. Accurately reconstructed corsetry was found to reduce the volume of the lungs by 9 % on average, with a range of 2-29 % when the corset was smaller by about 3 inches or 10 % than the women s waist measurement. Women with 21 to 80 pounds of pressure per square inch experienced at least a 20 % reduction in lung capacity and tightly laced corsets threatened the health of fetuses and the woman [9]. Thus, corsets significantly jeopardized physiological health, as well as psychological comfort. Clothing pressure that exceeds 4 kpa (1 kpa=10.197 gf/ cm 2 ) at the waist is considered harmful to the body, although this number may vary depending on an individual s amount 471

472 Fibers and Polymers 2015, Vol.16, No.2 Youngjoo Na of body fat and body posture. Non-elastic corset of 5 % smaller than waist girth exerts a maximum clothing pressure of 4.0 kpa on the side of the waist [10]. Custom-ordered elastic material girdles exhibit a wide range of clothing pressures, from 1.4 to 5.0 kpa at the center of the stomach [6]. The maximum pressure for comfort of a brassier is 1.5 to 2.6 kpa at the shoulder when breathing naturally, and 0.7 to 1.6 kpa at the girth under the breast. Wearing a girdle made of even stretchable material [11] decreases the subjective comfort of clothing pressure and the body s blood flow circulation [12]. The lung volume of women wearing accurately reconstructed corsets had been measured, and corset pressure was estimated; other responses, such as blood circulation, heart beat, and even actual corset pressure have not yet been studied. However, corset pressure, sweat amount, metabolism, and additional physiological responses can be measured and studied with a reconstructed corset. In this way, we can obtain the the actual wearing conditions of that time period in Europe. To our knowledge, no other research of this kind has been conducted before. This study closely examines and confirms the physiological response changes caused by tight-waist corsets from eighteenth century Europe through the use of recently developed measuring devices. In our previous study of one corset type with 4 wires bonding only; 2 in center and each in both sides, we found the corsetwearing results that clothing pressure reached 4.0 kpa at most, energy metabolism increased 7.9 % at most and lung ventilation exchange decreased 7.3 % at most in the exercise level [10]. And we questioned if the allover boning-type corset might increase clothing pressure and physiological responses of wearers or not. Therefore, three types of corsets (A, B, and C) differing in the amount of plastic boning in corset are reproduced and investigated. The purpose of this study is: (1) to measure the clothing pressure produced by historical and no-stretchable corsets, typified by three bonding-type corsets; and (2) to examine their physiological effects on the human body. Experimental Production of Historical Corsets The style of corset was selected from those that best Figure 1. Clothing pressure measurement points on Corset B. represent the preserved clothes of the period, and typical fashion of eighteenth century Europe for this period gave the available scientific informations and basis. Materials and subsidiary materials, and pattern, sewing technique were shown in detail the previous study [13]. One corset was depicted in Figure 1 (the case of Corset B). For Corset B, plastic wires were inserted vertically all over the corset at an interval of 0.5 cm as the substitutes of whale bone (plastic wire size of 4 mm 1 mm). The plastic wires were purchased from the commercial market site at which many of corset manufacturers used todays. For Corset C, wire-insert interval was 2.0 cm. For Corset A, no plastic wires were used at all. Human Wearing Tests Experimental Sequence and Participants The physiological responses of the human body were examined during an 85 min time span, using a sequence of 4 body postures and 2 work levels chosen to simulate women engaging in daily lives, such as dancing or merchant trade in the street: sitting (20 min), sitting while bending over at a 45 o angle (5 min), standing (5 min), standing while bowing at a 45 o angle (5 min), walking at 2.5 mph (Exercise I: 15 min), Figure 2. Experimental sequence.

Body Comfort According to the Corset Boning Type Fibers and Polymers 2015, Vol.16, No.2 473 running at 3.7 mph (Exercise II: 15 min), and resting on a chair (20 min) after pretests (Figure 2). Five women in their twenties volunteered to be our test subjects. Their average bust girth was 84.9±2.0 cm, waist girth was 69.3±3.5 cm, weight was 58.5±3.6 kg, and height was 165±5.8 cm. The waist girth of the historical corset is 10-20 % or 7-14 cm smaller than the waist measurements of 5 of the subjects. During the experiment, the participants wore t-shirts, shorts, socks, and sneakers with or without a corset. The shorts worn by the subjects were large-sized cotton shorts with an elastic waist band. The subjects did not wear bras underneath the corset. Measurements of Physiological Responses Each experiment was performed and repeated twice in a climate chamber (EBL-5HW2P3A-22) at 20±0.5 o C, 50±10 % RH, and an air velocity of less than 0.3 m/s. An air-pack type contact surface pressure measuring system (AMI3037-10) was used to measure clothing pressure. Sensors of size of 4 4 cm were attached on the planned point of skin surface, and the corset was worn carefully. Data were recorded every 5 s. Eight points on the torso were examined as representatives of high press : 1) 1 cm above the left bust; 2) 1 cm above the navel; 3) 2 cm under the armpit; 4) at the cross of the waistline and side seam; 5) 1 cm below the left shoulder blade; 6) below the shoulder blade at the waistline; 7) midway between the navel and the cross of the waistline and side seam; and 8) midway between the cross of the waistline and side seam, and below the shoulder blade at the waistline (Figure 1). Heart rate was measured and recorded every minute using a band POLAR monitor (RS400 TM ) at chest level with an accuracy of ±1 % or 1 beat-per-minute (bpm). The heart rate band was an elastic type, and was worn just below the breasts. The location of the band allowed it to experience minimal pressure from the corset. Blood flow was measured (Blood flow-mass-velocity measuring system: ALF21RD) on the tip of the middle finger on each hand. Perspiration was measured at the center of the chest, using paired sensors of a differential ventilated capsule (SRP7-2000) and recorded every 5 s. Metabolism was measured using oxygen and a carbon dioxide analyzer (Metabolic measuring instrument: True One 2400-Tm), and the data were recorded every minute. All tests were repeated three times. The mean value was used for comparing the three types of corsets and no corset (referred to as N). A 7-point subjective scale of body compression was developed and revised from previous studies [6,10], with: 1=very loose; 2=loose; 3=a little loose; 4=neutral; 5=a little tight; 6=tight; and 7=very tight. Results and Discussion Clothing Pressure According to Measuring Point Clothing pressure according to measurement point and experimental sequence is presented in Figure 3. For the eight body points, clothing pressure was found to change according to body posture. Clothing pressure increased according to posture: standing (from 1500 to 1800 s)<sitting (0 to 1200 s) <standing while bowing at a 45 o angle (from 1800 to 2100 s) < sitting while bending over at a 45 o angle (from 1200 to 1500 s). A bowing posture induced a great increase in clothing pressure, from average 2-4 kpa at all the points with corset to almost a maximum of 6-7 kpa at point 8 with corset. This value is close to the result that the waistnipper produced of a maximum of 6.5 kpa at the waist [6]. Clothing pressure decreased when the participant performed Exercise I (from 2100 to 3000 s) and lower than sitting but a little higher than standing, this is assumed to be a result of body muscle shrinking during body movement and exercise to allow the corset inside to have more space. The clothing pressure for Exercise II (from 3000 to 3900 s) is a little higher than that for Exercise I. This increase is partly due to the increase in the breathing volume caused by a high level of exercise. During the recovery period after exercise, the clothing pressure returns to a level similar to that of the sitting posture. The measuring points are classified into three groups according to the peak clothing pressure. The Low Group (kpa < 3) consists of pressure point 1 (Figure 3(a)) above the left bust, which shows low pressure even while bowing. Pressure points 5 and 7 (Figures 3(e) and 3(g)) belong to the Middle Group (kpa < 4). The remaining five pressure points are classified as the High Group (kpa > 4). Especially at body point 8 (Figure 3(h)), close to the side seam, the clothing pressure at certain time is above 4 kpa for two corsets, corset B & C and almost 7 kpa for the sitting bowing posture of corset B. Corset B & C are showing high pressures above 4 kpa at bowing, sitting and recovery period. This pressure may be dangerous if the wearing time is long and the wearer is accustomed to the high pressure sensation; in this case, the wearer may no longer experience acute discomfort from the corset compression and might keep the high clothing pressure on the body. A clothing pressure above 4 kpa is regarded as harmful to health and the stomach and waist are soft parts of the body with many inner organs, and the waist girth usually increases 6.2 % after eating meals. For this reason, clothing pressure at the waist should not exceed 1 kpa when in a standing posture, and 4 kpa when in a movement posture [6]. Among the different clothing types, Corset A, with no plastic boning, showed the lowest range of pressures at most of the points, and the pressures were evenly distributed over all of the points. Corset B showed the highest pressure at points 3 and 8 (Figures 3(c) and 3(h)) and the lowest pressure at points 2 and 7 (Figures 3(b) and 3(g)). Due its large amount of plastic boning, Corset B reformed the natural oval shape of the body torso into an almost circular shape. This is

474 Fibers and Polymers 2015, Vol.16, No.2 Youngjoo Na Figure 3(a)-(d). Clothing pressure according to pressure point and clothing type (point 1-4: in the order); (a) above the left bust, (b) above the navel, (c) under the armpit, and (d) at the cross of the waistline and side seam, (e) below the left shoulder blade, (f) below the shoulder blade at the waistline, (g) midway between the navel and the cross of the waistline and side seam, and (h) midway between the cross of the waistline and side seam and below the shoulder blade at the waistline.

Body Comfort According to the Corset Boning Type Fibers and Polymers 2015, Vol.16, No.2 475 thought to contribute to the highest pressure on the side seams and the lowest pressure on the center. Corset C showed the highest pressure at three points: 2, 5 and 6. This is due to the pressure not being evenly distributed, since the plastic boning is concentrated at the center front and center back. This explains the high pressure at body point 2 (Figure 3(b)), which is just above the navel, and the high pressure at body points 5 and 6 (Figures 3(e) and 3(f)), which are close to the center of the back. Heart Rate Changes Figure 4 presents the fluctuation in heart rate over time during the experiment. During sitting, in the first 20 min, a heart rate of 68-80 bpm is measured. The heart rate increases to about 90 bpm while bowing. The heart rate is 90-95 bpm during Exercise I (from 35 to 50 min) and 120-150 bpm for Figure 4. Heart rate according to clothing type over time. Exercise II (from 50 to 65 min). During the recovery period, the heart rate returns to a similar rate to that of sitting. The heart rate decreased while wearing a corset. In addition, the heart rate differed according to corset type, in the decreasing order of N>B>A>C. Figure 5 shows that the changes in heart rate during the 3 periods and Exercise II differ the most for Corset C compared to no corset. Specifically, the heart rate is 15 % lower while sitting (68 bpm compared to 80 bpm) and 20 % lower during Exercise II (120 bpm compared to 150 bpm). Hence, Corset C reduces the heart rate the most among the corset types, with the maximum of a 15-20 % reduced heart rate. Corset B reduces heart rate the least among the corset types, with its heart rate being closest to that of N. Blood Flow Changes Blood- flow rate at the fingertips is investigated, as shown in Figure 6. Without a corset, the rate of blood flow is around 22 to 28 (no unit) during the 4 body postures (from 0 to 2100 s). The rate of blood flow decreases slightly with time while sitting, increases when bowing 45 o in a sitting posture, and then decreases again while standing. Bowing 45 o in a standing posture shows similar rate of blood flow to that when standing without bowing. The rate of blood flow at the finger tips, rate of peripheral blood flow, decreases instantly during Exercise I. This seems because the muscles need a relatively large amount of blood for exercise in closed circulation. Immediately after transitioning from Exercise I to Exercise II (from 3000 to 3900 s), blood flow increases from 4-10 to 17-28 due to the higher activity level. Blood-flow rate while wearing a corset is lower compared to no corset among all time sequences. However, blood flow differs among the corset types (A=C < B < N). For example, Corsets A and C show 36 % lower blood-flow rate than no corset while sitting (18 compared to 28), and Corset B shows Figure 5. Heart rate according to clothing type and posture. Figure 6. Blood flow according to clothing type over time.

476 Fibers and Polymers 2015, Vol.16, No.2 Youngjoo Na Figure 7. Sweat rate according to clothing type over time. 18 % lower blood-flow rate compared to no corset (23 compared to 28). Furthermore, during Exercises I and II, Corsets A and C show about 40 % lower blood-flow rate than no corset (12 compared to 20); whereas, Corset B shows a similar blood- flow rate to no corset (around 3500 s). The higher rate of blood flow of Corset B, compared to Corsets A and C, occurs partly due to the movement of many plastic boning as pumping or seesaw effect onto the blood vessels, which enhance the rate of blood flow. Perspiration Changes Perspiration rate was investigated, as shown in Figure 7. The participants who wore no corset showed the highest perspiration rate throughout the experimental time sequences. On the other hand, the perspiration of women who wore corsets was lower compared to the perspiration of women who were not wearing a corset. This is for that the compressive corsets block the sweat out of skin surface. Among the different corset types, Corset A showed the lowest sweat rate over all time conditions, as much as 90 % lower than no corset (0.01 mg/min compared to 0.1 mg/min) from the period of sitting to Exercise I (0 to 3000 s). Corsets B and C showed a sweat rate only 50 % lower than no corset (0.05 mg/min compared to 0.1 mg/min). Corset A induces the lowest sweat rate, which may be the result of Corset A having the largest close adhering surface area to the skin. During Exercise II (from 3000 to 3900 s), all of the corset types showed the maximum of perspiration rate of about 0.35 mg/min, which is 22 % lower than the perspiration rate of 0.45 mg/min without a corset, and the corsets showed no difference each other. Energy Metabolism Changes The metabolism of women was influenced by body posture and activity level, as shown in Figure 8. While Figure 8. Metabolism according to clothing type over time. sitting (0 to 20 min) about 1 Met was found. Metabolism increased to about 1.5 Mets while sitting and bowing at a 45 o angle (from 20 to 25 min). This increase was due to the body muscles requirement of energy during the posture change. While standing (from 25 to 30 min), metabolism returned to 1 Met. Metabolism increased again to about 1.5 Mets while standing and bowing at a 45 o angle (from 30 to 35 min). It increased to about 2.8-3.2 Mets during Exercise I (from 35 to 50 min) and again up to 4.5-5.0 Mets during Exercise II (from 50 to 65 min), due to the higher level of activity. Metabolism is not only influenced by body posture and activity level, but is also influenced by clothing type. Wearing Corset B requires the most energy: during Exercise I, the metabolism for Corset B increased about 14 % compared to the other corset types or no corset (3.2 Mets compared to 2.8 Mets); and during Exercise II, Corset B shows about 11 % higher metabolism (5.0 Mets compared to 4.5 Mets) than the other corset types or no corset. Given the higher metabolism rate induced by Corset B, it can be concluded that Corset B demonstrates the most inefficient energy consumption out of the three corsets. This is thought to be the result of the large amount of plastic boning in the corset, which causes oval body torso to become circular shape. It is assumed that the movement of plastic boning in the circular-shape corset made the adjacent body muscles of both sides move along with the corset during the exercises. This makes the body swing in larger movements, resulting in the overall increase in activity level. Subjective Pressure Sensation In the analysis of subjective pressure sensation on the body, we used a 7-point scale expressing tightness: 1 was a very loose feeling ; 4 was a neutral feeling ; and 7 was a very tight feeling. Without any corset, the participants experienced a sensation mean rating of around 2; whereas,

Body Comfort According to the Corset Boning Type Fibers and Polymers 2015, Vol.16, No.2 477 Figure 9. Subjective pressure sensations according to clothing type and posture. they experienced a high level of tightness and discomfort of 5 to 7 when wearing a corset (Figure 9). Pressure sensation and actual clothing pressure are correlated. Both values increased during bowing. Both values also decreased during Exercise I as the result of the muscular tightening caused by the body movement, causing the corset to have a looser fit. Tightness sensation decreased during Exercise I, having a lower value than either static or bowing postures. This is similar to the finding that clothing pressure can be beneficial, especially during exercise, as it delays the onset of muscle pain and supports the rhythmic movement of the muscles [6]. During Exercise II, the subjective clothing pressure sensation increased modestly again. The higher pressure sensation during Exercise II also seemed to be due to the higher activity level of running, which caused an increase in heart rate, blood flow, sweat rate, and metabolism. Out of the three corset types, Corset B with most plastic boning, demonstrated the highest subjective pressure sensation from sitting to early exercise; later, however, it produced less pressure sensation out of the three corsets during Exercise II or the recovery period, which means boning Corset B and C showed improved pressure sensation than Corset A after exercises. Conclusion The clothing pressure of historical corsets and the changes in physiological responses of women who wear them were analyzed. The physiological responses of 5 women while wearing 3 corsets were measured, including heart rate, blood flow, perspiration, metabolism, and subjective pressure sensation, as well as clothing pressure, in 4 different body postures and across 2 different activity levels. The clothing pressure of corsets differed according to corset type, body posture and measuring points. Corset A with no boning showed lowest clothing pressure at 6 points excepts 2 points. Clothing pressure is low in the order of standing, exercise, recovery, sitting, and bowing. Among 8 measuring points, 5 pressure points showed peak values above 4 kpa, which has been well established to be harmful to health. The highest clothing pressure of almost 7 kpa was measured, and highest pressure was shown at 2 points when the participants were wearing Corset B, with the most plastic boning, and bowing at 45 o while sitting, and 2 points of body center showed lowest pressure among three corsets. But Corset C showed highest pressure at 3 points and lowest pressure at no measuring points. Heart rate decreased with higher clothing pressure from the corset. Heart rate was 15 to 20 % lower than normal while wearing Corset C. Our results also revealed that blood flow while wearing corsets was influenced by corset pressure. The participants who wore Corset A or Corset C showed around 36-40 % lower blood flow than that of no corset. In contrast, Corset B showed around 0-18 % lower blood flow compared to that of no corset. This was assumed to be partly due to the large amount of plastic boning of Corset B, which may influence the muscle movements that pump the flow of blood. In the blood circulation system, it seems that Corset C is the most harmful, and Corset B is the least. Perspiration was influenced by corset type and activity level, and was less influenced by body posture than was clothing pressure or heart rate. Participants who wore the corsets showed a lower perspiration rate. Corset A, with no plastic boning, thus exhibited a larger adhering surface to the skin and showed a 22-90 % lower perspiration rate. On the other hand, Corset B and C, with plastic boning, showed a 22-50 % lower sweat rate. Therefore, these results lead us to conclude that Corset A, with no plastic boning, had a particularly strong influence on perspiration. This was due to the restricted ability to skin breathe caused by the corset and its large contact surface area to the skin, which also resulted in low blood flow. Metabolism changed differently according to corset type and activity level. The participants demonstrated the highest metabolism while wearing Corset B, with the most plastic boning. While wearing Corset B, metabolism increased about 11-14 % during exercise. The subjective pressure sensation varied by corset type, body posture, and activity level. The highest level of tightness was perceived in the bowing postures before exercise, while wearing the corset with the most plastic boning. Specifically, the participants reported feeling a tightening discomfort of around 6 to 7 while sitting and bowing; however, the sensation decreased to a lesser discomfort of 5 to 6 during standing or exercise, recovery. The subjective pressure sensation during exercise reduced due to the rhythmic muscular support. Corset B, with the most plastic boning, showed the highest clothing pressure near the side seam when in a static body position and posture rather than exercises. Corset B also

478 Fibers and Polymers 2015, Vol.16, No.2 Youngjoo Na showed the highest generated metabolism compared to the other clothing types, even during the same activity level movements. However, Corset B showed least changes compared to the other clothing types in blood circulation, such as heart rate and blood-flow rate during exercise. This seems to be a result of the leverage effect of plastic boning on blood circulation when the body moves. This indicates that the body was more comfortable with Corset B type when the body was in motion. Corset C influenced heart rate and blood flow the most, and it showed the highest clothing pressure near the center. Also Corset A showed best clothing pressures while showed worst perspiration rate. This study confirms that wearing a corset impacts women s health negatively through high clothing pressure, decreased heart rate, reduced blood flow, lower perspiration, and higher waste of metabolism. The changes of body responses caused by the high pressure of corsets have been proven by objective and accurate measurement technologies. In addition, functions of various corsets on the physiological responses were also found to differ according to corset boning type. The result that the boning-type tight fitting clothing might have benefits more than the close skin adhesion-contact style is useful when you have to wear tight-fitting clothes in heavy working places, such as costume play or dancing. Acknowledgement References 1. T. Riordan, A History of the Innovations that Have Made us Beautiful, pp.221-243, Random House Inc., New York, 2004. 2. V. Steele, The Corset: A Cultural History, p.13, Yale University Press, New Haven, 2003. 3. M. J. Horn and L. M. Gurel, The Second Skin, p.19, Houghton Mifflin School, New York, 1981. 4. Anonymous, Englishwoman s Domestic Magazine, 3d ser. 3, pp.223-224, 1967. 5. Y. H. Jeong, K. H. Hong, and S. J. Kim, Fiber. Polym., 7, 195 (2006). 6. Y. J. Nam and J. O. Lee, J. Korean Fiber Soc., 39, 503 (2002). 7. J. Fields, J. Social History, 33, 355 (1999). 8. C. Gau, Dress, 26, 28 (1999). 9. S. K. Freeman, J. Women s History, 16, 191 (2004). 10. Y. J. Na and Y. H. Kim, J. Korean Soc. Cloth. Ind., 13, 943 (2011). 11. G. Lekamalage, D. Wickramasinghe, and P. W. Foster, Fashion and Textiles, 1, 1-16 (2014). DOI: 10.1186/s40691-014-0005-6. 12. S. Watanuki, Annu. Physiol. Anthropol., 13, 157 (1994). 13. Y. H. Kim, Y. J. Na, and H. J. Kim, J. Korean Soc. Cloth. Text., 35, 991 (2011). This research was supported by the National Research Foundation of Korea (#0012484) and Inha University Grant.