MLEIHA AN ARAB KINGDOM ON THE CARAVAN TRAILS. Discoveries in Sharjah Emirate - U.A.E.

MLEIHA AN ARAB KINGDOM ON THE CARAVAN TRAILS Discoveries in Sharjah Emirate - U.A.E. Presented by Sharjah Archaeology Authority at the Art & History Museum, Brussels Brussels 30.10-30.12.2018

Cover page: Fig. 1. Bronze bullhead spout, Cat. n 21.

MLEIHA AN ARAB KINGDOM ON THE CARAVAN TRAILS DISCOVERIES IN SHARJAH EMIRATE - U.A.E. EXHIBITION ON THE OCCASION OF THE 10 TH ANNIVERSARY OF THE JOINT ARCHAEOLOGICAL FIELDWORK AT MLEIHA BY SHARJAH ARCHAEOLOGY AUTHORITY & THE ROYAL MUSEUMS OF ART AND HISTORY, BRUSSELS.

Inside cover page: Fig. 3. Bronze bowl, Cat. n 16.

Contents Preface 5 Mleiha - connecting Western and Eastern cultures 6 The graveyard and the tomb of Amud 10 Catalogue 15 A. Architectural Elements 15 B. Coins 17 C. Pottery 18 D. Stone 20 E. Bronze 22 F. Silver dedication plaque 27 G. Horse and camel equipment 28 H. Iron armament 30 10 years of Belgian Excavations at Mleiha 32 Further reading 33

Fig. 2. Map of the Oman peninsula with location of Mleiha (Google Earth). Exhibition: Concept: Sabah Jasim, Eisa Yousif & Bruno Overlaet. Design & production: Sigmund Galle. Exhibit International SA, Brussels. Catalogue: Author: Bruno Overlaet. Illustrations: S.A.A., K. Kamyab, B. De Prez, B. Overlaet. Object conservation: Miguel A.N. Villanueva Published by Sharjah Archaeology Authority. Sharjah Archaeology Authority. P.O. Box 30300 Sharjah, U.A.E. info@saa.gov.ae

Preface Sharjah s archaeological prominence has risen steadily since the first excavations of 1973. In 1986 the Directorate of Antiquities was established to oversee all archaeological sites within the Emirate of Sharjah and its local team have since made many remarkable discoveries. In May 1997, a new museum was inaugurated to house some of these finds, and in 2016 a state of the art Visitor Centre opened in Sharjah s ancient city of Mleiha. 2016 also saw the establishment of Sharjah Archaeological Authority whose extensive responsibilities range from the excavation and safeguarding of sites and associated archaeological materials to the international fight against the illicit trade of archaeological materials. The settlement of Mleiha is one of the most important archaeological sites in south-eastern Arabia. It housed a thriving community between the 3 rd century BCE - 3 rd century CE and played an important role as a caravan city that enjoyed long distance trading relationships with trading hubs in Arabia, the northern Gulf, Levant, Mesopotamia, Iran, the Greek Isles and Roman Empire. The site s wealth and significance has attracted archaeological teams from all over the world, including the Belgian team headed first by the late Professor Dr Ernie Haerinck of Ghent University and then by Dr Bruno Overlaet from the Royal Museums of Art & History in Brussels. The Belgian team s many great discoveries include several monumental tombs, most notably one uniquely inscribed in both Aramaic and south Arabian scripts. This exhibition commemorates the 10th anniversary of this successful collaboration between Sharjah Archaeological Authority and the Belgian expedition. Dr Sabah Jasim Director General Sharjah Archaeology Authority 5

Mleiha - Connecting Western & Eastern Cultures (3 rd cent. BCE - 3 rd cent. CE) Mleiha is an oasis located in the Oman Peninsula, at the centre of Sharjah Emirate. It boomed in the early 3 rd century BCE when it became a trading hub for caravans on route from North and South Arabia. Most of the Near East was divided between the Seleucid kingdoms after Alexander the Great s death at Babylon in 323 BCE. SE-Arabia remained independent but the region did partake in the soaring international trade. A late 3 rd century BCE inscription discovered at Mleiha in 2015 confirmed the existence of an Oman Kingdom (Fig. 9) of which Mleiha was most probably the capital. It included the present day territories of the U.A.E. and parts of the Sultanate of Oman. The kingdom introduced its own coins, inspired by those of Alexander and his Seleucid successors. Whereas the earliest issues closely copied their iconography, the head of Hercules and the seated Greek deity Zeus, they rapidly adapted them. Monograms and symbols were added; Abiel, probably a hereditary throne name that is to be translated as my father is God, replaced the name of Alexander. Fig. 4. Coins found at Mleiha: silver drachm, bronze tetradrachm and silver obol (Cat. n 3). Little is known about Mleiha s population. Written sources are rare and are limited to a few funerary inscriptions, property marks and religious dedications (Fig. 9, 13 and 19). The use of South Arabian monumental and cursive writing (zabur) next to Aramaic, the lingua franca used in commerce throughout the Near East, suggests a mixed population with foreign traders possibly residing at the capital. 6

Fig. 5. View on Mleiha, the mud brick fortified palace is visible in the foreground. The Jebel Fayah mountain ridge in the background protects the site from the desert sands. The 3 rd and 2 nd century BCE was a prosperous period that is best documented by the large graveyard along the rim of the settlement (Fig. 6). Clusters of monumental tombs surrounded by more modest burials suggest a society based on family or tribal groups. What remains in the unfortunately severely plundered tombs can only give a glimpse of the city s wealth. Apart from local Arabian produce, we find East Mediterranean, Mesopotamian, Iranian, South Arabian (Yemen) and Indian imports, mostly pottery, weaponry, stone and bronze vessels, jewellery... A surprisingly large number of wine amphora from Rhodes have been discovered. Some of these had cracks that were repaired in antiquity, others had their spike carefully removed and one amphora had even been glazed (Fig. 13). It shows these amphora were valued possessions, worth depositing in the deceased s tomb. In one case, a bronze drinking bowl was placed on top of the amphora. Such bowls, often richly decorated, were part of wine sets with ladles and sieves (Fig. 1, 3, 16, 17, 23 and 24). Conflicts in the Near East around the middle of the 2 nd century BCE appear to have had their impact on Mleiha s position as a trading hub. With the rise in Iran and Mesopotamia of the Parthian empire at the territorial expense of the Seleucids, the overland caravan trade from Mesopotamia and North Arabia was under pressure and seems to have declined. 7

At some moment in the late 2 nd century or early 1 st century BCE, Mleiha was in crisis. The tombs were systematically plundered and left exposed to the elements. The desert invaded parts of the oasis; dunes covered some of the previously occupied areas. Towards the end of the 1 st century BCE, it was along the sea routes that the bulk of the trade goods reached the Oman peninsula. Characene, a small Parthian client kingdom in Southern Mesopotamia developed into a major naval nation that dominated the sea trade in the Gulf. It seems the Oman kingdom also adapted by taking full advantage from its coastal sites, such as ed-dur and Dibba. Ed-Dur flourished until the devastating wars of Trajan (116/117 CE) ended Characene s grip on trade and shipping activities in the Gulf. Dibba probably continued as a stopover for the trade between the Red Sea, the South Arabian coastline and Pakistan and India. Mleiha flourished anew after its 2 nd /1 st century BCE crisis; buildings were constructed on top of some of the recently formed dunes and new types of tombs, including communal ones, were constructed. However, also some of the previously plundered monumental tombs were repaired and reused. Several farmyards, houses and two strongholds from this phase were excavated at Mleiha. Roman glassware, gems and pottery imports at Mleiha replaced the earlier Greek Hellenistic trade goods, reflecting the political and economic changes in the Mediterranean Basin. The prosperity of Mleiha seems to have ended abruptly in the 3 rd century CE. One of the fortified manors, the so-called palace (Fig. 5), was besieged and burned down after which the site was apparently deserted. These events coincide with the rise to power in Iran and Mesopotamia of the Sasanians, a dynasty that aspired to gain control of the trade routes in and beyond the Gulf. Mleiha was left to the elements until palm gardens were reinstalled in the 1960 s. Although some of the site was lost as a result of these agricultural activities, they also brought the archaeological remains to the attention of the authorities and since the early 1970 s archaeologists have worked to reveal its history. Cultural heritage laws now protect the site and the last of the remaining palm gardens are gradually opening up for archaeological exploration. 8

9 Fig. 6. Satelite image of Mleiha (Google Earth), with the location of the graveyard (dark grey zone) and other excavated areas.

The graveyard and the tomb of Amud The large Mleiha graveyard borders on the East and West of the settlement (Fig. 6). It consists of clusters of monumental tombs with square buildings on top, belonging to the more prominent or wealthy family members, surrounded by a large number of more modest graves. All of the 3 rd to early 1 st century BCE tombs were individual, the size of the underground burial chamber could vary considerably, however, depending on the space needed for the burial goods. It is unfortunate that all these tombs were plundered in antiquity but what remains, often merely fragments left behind by the robbers, can still give some idea about burial practices. The smallest tombs, sometimes hardly large enough to receive a body in contracted position, contained some pottery vessels, possibly for foodstuffs, a few iron weapons, a spindle whorl The larger tombs, however, could accommodate big storage vessels, wine amphora, bronze vessels and wine sets, imported luxury glazed pottery, South Arabian stone vessels for ointments or aromatics and other preciosa. Iron armament, mostly arrowheads and swords, sometimes with silver embellished grips, are present in large quantities. A few small but delicately made gold beads are all that remain of the jewellery once worn by the deceased. Camels or horses were sometimes slaughtered and buried next to the graves of important individuals, an Arab custom known as baliye. The monumental tombs had burial pits that varied from a simple rectangular space measuring c. 1 by 2 meters to large single or double rooms with a surface of more than 10 m². These burial chambers were roofed with beams topped by an up to 80 cm thick layer of mud bricks. Most tombs had no separate access and the superstructure was built on top of it once the burial had taken place and the grave pit was closed. The larger tombs had, however, separate entrance corridors. These monuments could thus be built in advance and once the deceased was buried, the corridor was blocked with mud bricks (Fig. 7). Hardly more than 30 or 40 cm of the above ground structures is usually preserved but their shape can be reconstructed. 10

11 Fig. 7. View on the subterranean H-shaped structure of the Tomb of Amud (tomb FA-5) at the end of the 2017 excavations (Mleiha area FA).

The walls were made of mud brick or a more durable white lime plaster brick. Some collapsed walls showed that these constructions were 3 to 4 meters high and that the upper rim was decorated with crenelations. The slightly inclined walls, the crenelations, and the entrance platforms, these are characteristics that are all preserved in traditional SE-Arabian architecture. Fig. 8. Tentative reconstruction of the Tomb of Amud superstructure and section of the wall (Fig. 6: area F, red circle). The building stood on top of the burial chamber shown in Fig. 7. In 2015 the Belgian team started the excavation of a grave that was part of a cluster of 5 monumental tombs. The base of the walls and about a quarter of the tomb s original floor were still preserved but the remainder had been severely disturbed. Nevertheless, the tomb provided spectacular new information on Mleiha s early history. 12

The walls of the superstructure had been built with the durable lime plaster bricks on top of a foundation of boulders, an indication that the construction had been one of the more prestigious at the site. The underground construction had an H-shaped plan with a long entrance corridor on the North side that had been blocked with mud bricks (Fig. 7). The tomb had been plundered twice. A first time in the 2 nd or 1 st century BCE after which it was left exposed to the elements. A c. 80 cm thick layer of sand and debris had accumulated on the floor of the burial chambers before it was reused for another burial in the late 1 st cent. BCE - 1 st cent. CE. Also this grave was eventually plundered. However, when the southern chamber was reused, the passage between the two rooms was closed with a lime plaster brick wall on top of the 80 cm of debris. The bricks were taken from the superstructure of this or one of the neighbouring tombs, which must already have been in a state of decay. Amongst them was Fig. 9, a 16 cm thick lime plaster block of 87 by 52 cm with a funerary inscription. The 5 lines of the central panel are written in monumental South Arabian script, while the text along the rim is written in Aramaic: Memorial and tomb of ʿAmud son of Gurr son of ʿAli, inspector of the king of Oman, which built over him his son ʿAmud son of ʿAmud son of Gurr, inspector of the [ king of Oman... ] This is (?) the memorial of ʿAmud son of Gurr which his son ʿAmud son of ʿAmud built over him year 90 (or 97) For the most part, both texts give the same information but the Aramaic version also provides a date: 90 or possibly 97 (Seleucid Era) which is 222/221 or 215/214 BCE. The text states that Amud built the tomb for his father and that they both were inspectors in the service of the King of Oman. 13

14 Fig. 9. (Cat. n 1) Bilingual South-Arabian / Aramaic funerary inscription discovered in 2015 inside the burial chamber of tomb FA-5 (see Fig. 7-8).

This is the first historic reference we have to the existence of an Oman kingdom. The name was mentioned in later Western sources; the anonymous Periplus Maris Erythraei (Voyage around the Erythraean Sea) and Pliny the Elder s Naturalis Historia (Natural History) both mention Omana as an important harbour. It cannot be ascertained that the funerary inscription belongs to this specific tomb, it may also derive from one of the neighbouring ones but it stands to reason they do not differ much in date. Some of the finds associated with the original burial agree with the high status to be expected from a royal inspector. There was e.g. a glazed Rhodian wine amphora (Fig. 13) and a highly decorated bronze bowl (Fig. 22-23). The bowl combines Hellenistic iconography (centaur) and African animals (rhinoceros, elephant, hyena ) with Arabian subjects (warrior with his camel fighting a lion with sword and lasso). Eastern Africa and South Arabia were politically and culturally strongly linked and it suggests a possible South Arabian provenance for the bowl. Like the use of the writing system and the imports of the stone beehive vessels and aromatics, it is yet another testimony to the close connections between Mleiha and the Southern part of Arabia. A. Architectural Elements Catalogue Palm-leaf architecture probably accounted in antiquity for much of the dwellings, a tradition which survived in the UAE well into the 20 th century. Houses made from wooden beams and the woven leafs of date palms (the main tree in the oasis) known as arish are ideally suited for the climate. The postholes of the wooden poles on which the palm-leaf matting was fixed can be found in the excavations. Although hard stone was locally available from the nearby Jebel Fayah (Fig. 5) it was rarely used, mostly as pivot stones for doors and occasionally in the construction of underground burial chambers (Fig. 7). More permanent and defensive buildings were made of sun-dried mud bricks (Fig. 5: the palace ). The surface of mud brick constructions was protected from the elements by plastering with either a mud mixture or a lime plaster. Lime plaster was a more durable building material that was sometimes used to produce bricks, crenelations or large inscribed blocks for monumental tombs (Fig. 9 and 10). 15

Fig. 10. Cat. n 2 and modern production at Mleiha of lime plaster bricks and ornaments for reconstruction purposes. CAT. n 1. (Fig. 9) Funerary inscription, late 3rd cent. BCE. Mleiha area F, tomb FA-5. Lime plaster. 87 x 52 x 16 cm. (replica on exhibition) CAT. n 2. (Fig. 10) Crenelation from tomb, 2nd cent. BCE. Mleiha area AV-P, tomb P1. (2009-ML.P.Arch16). Lime plaster. 38 x 47 x 8 cm. 16

B. Coins. Like contemporary centres in North Arabia, Mleiha started to mint coins in the 3rd century BCE, probably rather as a display of its independence than out of need. These coins were political statements and did not circulate much beyond SE-Arabia (Fig. 4). Contemporary Hellenistic coinage provided the concept and iconography; the coins more or less followed the Attic weight standard with tetradrachms, drachms and obols. The obverse image shows the head of Hercules with the Nemean lion pelt, the reverse the seated Zeus with an eagle and staff, probably associated in Arabia with the sun god Shamash. Over time details changed. The eagle could be replaced by a horse, symbols such as palm leafs and tridents were added and Alexander s name was replaced by that of Abiel, which translates as my father is god. The Aramaic inscription sometimes details that Abiel was son of or daughter of. Abiel seems to be a throne name and was adopted by male as well as female rulers. Although all known coins are struck, the discovery of two moulds shows that some late types were cast. Fig. 11. Cat. n 4. Coin mould for the obverse of Abiel tetradrachms with the stylised head of Hercules wearing the pelt of the Nemean lion. CAT. n 3. (Fig. 4) Abiel coins, late 3 rd cent. BCE - 2 nd cent. CE a. silver tetradrachm. (MLH.9-03). 25 x 5 mm. 15g. b. billon tetradrachm. (EXS.342). 35 x 3 mm. 9g. c. silver obol. (MLH.6-10). 8 x 2 mm. 1g. CAT. n 4. Coin mould, 2 nd - 3 rd cent. CE. Mleiha area CW - Fort. (EXS.213 / SM2010-1092) Sandstone. 16.2 x 4.5 x 3 cm. (replica on exhibition) 17

C. Pottery. The presence and the amount of foreign pottery next to local or in SE-Arabia produced vessels provides insights on Mleiha s links with other regions. Luxury vessels as well as more modest and utilitarian pottery used for transport (e.g. wine amphora) arrived in large quantities at Mleiha. The green glazed vessel Cat. n 6 with its ornamental handles was e.g. a South Mesopotamian import. Fig. 12. Cat. n 5 and 6. Local painted pottery and glazed vessel imported from Southern Mesopotamia. Amphora with wine from Rhodes had to be transported on camel back to Mleiha. These Rhodian amphora have stamped handles, allowing them to be accurately dated (Fig. 13). They appear to have been a status symbol at Mleiha since they were a popular burial gift, were repaired when broken or cracked and were adapted to local taste. The bottom spike is sometimes chiselled away and one amphora was even glazed. Another amphora had a property mark in zabur, a cursive South Arabian script, scratched on the handle. Changes over time in trade routes and patterns are reflected in the ceramics that are found. Rhodian amphora and Greek black varnished pottery is e.g. found in 3 rd to early 1 st century tombs and dwellings. With the dominance of Rome in the Mediterranean basin, different products started to arrive at Mleiha from the late 1st century BCE onwards. Among these are the Roman style luxury vessels in bright red terra sigillata and amphora from the Western Mediterranean. 18

19 Fig. 13. Cat. n 7 to 11. Rhodian and Spanish amphora, a stamped handle fragment and a handle fragment with a zabur property inscription.

Cat. n 11 (Fig. 13 right) is an amphora from the Roman province Baetica (Andalucía, Spain). This type was commonly used for garum, a fermented fish sauce and Roman delicatessen that was widely traded in antiquity. Apart from pottery that was produced in SE-Arabia, pottery from the Mediterranean basin (Greek & Roman), South Mesopotamia, Iran, South and North Arabia and the Indian subcontinent has been identified at Mleiha and at the coastal sites ed-dur and Dibba. CAT. n 5. Painted vase, 4 th - 3 rd cent. BCE. Mleiha Area FE tomb 1. H. 30.1 cm. CAT. n 6. Green glazed vase, 2 nd - 1 st cent. BCE. Mleiha area AV-Q (2013-P.QC.24). H. 50 cm. CAT. n 7. Glazed Rhodian amphora, 3 rd cent. BCE. Mleiha area F, «Tomb of Amud» FA-5. (2015-FA.P.2). H. 76 cm. CAT. n 8. Rhodian amphora, 2 nd cent. BCE. Mleiha area 7 (MLH 7-01). W. 48 cm. CAT. n 9. Inscribed Rhodian amphora fragment, c. 225 125 BCE. Mleiha area 7; L. handle c. 27 cm. CAT. n 10. Amphora handle stamped by the fabricant Antimachos, 198 146 BCE. Mleiha surface find. CAT. n 11. Spanish amphora, late 1 st cent. BCE - 1 st cent. CE. Mleiha area FG, tomb FG-2 (ML2017-FG.P.25). H. 77.5 cm. D. Stone. Beehive shaped vessels, sometimes with lion shaped knobs on the lid, were imported from South Arabia (Yemen) containing incense, valuable ointments and aromatics. Significant numbers were discovered in the Mleiha tombs (Fig. 14 left). Fig. 14. Cat. n 12 and 13. South Arabian and local stone vessels. 20

These luxury vessels were also copied in local veined stones. Fig. 14 right is part of a group of unfinished vessels discovered buried under the floor of a dwelling. Incense was a crucial export produce for the South Arabian kingdoms and a highly prized commodity in par with precious metals. Nevertheless, it was consumed in prodigious quantities. It was used for domestic purposes as well as in religious and funerary ceremonies. Cat. n 14 is an exceptionally large incense burner; it was a chance find but its size and quality indicates it once belonged to an important household, temple or tomb. Although we know that there must have been temples at Mleiha, they remain to be discovered. The small fragmentary statuette of a seated woman (Cat. n 15) may be from a house shrine. It was found in the besieged Palace at Mleiha and probably represents a goddess. It could be al-lat who was widely venerated in Arabia and to whom a silver plaque was dedicated (Fig. 19). Fig. 15. Cat. n 14-15. Stone incense burner and statuette of deity. 21

CAT. n 12. Beehive vessels & lids with lion knobs, 3 rd cent. BCE - 1 st cent. CE. Mleiha area 7. Calcite. H. lids 2-2.8 cm, vessels 6.1 & 8 cm. CAT. n 13. Vase, 2 nd - 3 rd cent. CE. Mleiha area 10. Calcite. H. 14 cm. CAT. n 14. Incense burner, 1 st - 2 nd cent. CE. Mleiha area 6 (surface). Limestone. H. 50 cm. (replica on exhibition) CAT. n 15. Statue, 1 st - 3 rd cent. CE. Mleiha 8, the palace entrance and courtyard. H. 14.8 cm. E. Bronze. Although some bronze items were probably imported (Fig. 18, cat. n 23), there must have been a significant local bronze industry in the Oman peninsula, if not at Mleiha itself. A series of low bowls with a spout in the shape of a bull s head or a horse protome straddling a tube is only known from this region and must have been locally made (Fig. 17). The wall of the vessels had small perforations behind these spouts turning them into sieves. Such bowls are part of wine sets that also included ladles to scoop the wine and drinking bowls that were sometimes lavishly decorated. These wine sets were an important part of the burial goods and are often associated with Rhodian wine amphora or glazed vessels like Cat. n 6 (Fig. 12). Many of these drinking bowls were decorated and some also had the name of the owner chased near the rim. The decorations are a mixture of local iconography and Hellenistic or exotic themes and mirror Mleiha s international trade links. Cat. n 16 (Fig. 3) shows three bands around a central rosette. The inner band displays a procession of houbaru birds, a popular hunting prey, it is followed by a row of camels. Their appearance suggests that they are bukhti, a sterile cross-breed between local dromedary and Bactrian camels. These animals were sturdier and capable of carrying heavy loads. The image of a man climbing a palm tree cuts through the two outer bands. 22

23 Fig. 16. Cat. n 17. Camel rider and horse rider fighting an opponent holding a shield. Fragment of a bronze bowl.

He may be harvesting dates or he may want to fertilize the flowers, a crucial activity in the date production at the oasis. Cat. n 18 (Fig. 23-24) was found in the Tomb of Amud suggesting a late 3rd century BCE date. Its decoration had been changed or adapted several times and different artistic styles can be distinguished. The two bands around the central medallion combine Arabian subjects (Arab with camel fighting a lion), Hellenistic imagery (centaur fighting a sea creature, later changed into pelicans) and various African animals (elephant, hyena, mating rhinoceros ). Possibly this bowl originated in East Africa, a region that was closely linked with South-Arabia where some of these animals are at home. Fig. 17. Cat. n 19 to 22. Bronze bowl and tubular figurative spouts. 24

Fig. 18. Cat. n 23 & 24. Bronze statuettes: Greek or Roman Aphrodite and a man offering (?) a bird. 25

Among the small cast bronzes found at Mleiha are two figurines, probably deriving from a sanctuary or house shrine but unfortunately both are surface finds. The man holding a bird, dressed in local attire and with a headband, may be an offer bearer.the female statue represents the Greek goddess Aphrodite, originally holding a shield with two hands in which she admired her own reflection (Aphrodite Hoplismene). It copies the cult statue in her temple at the Greek city of Corinth and is probably a Hellenistic or Roman import. CAT. n 16. (Fig. 3) Decorated bowl, 3 rd - 1 st cent. BCE. Mleiha Area FK (2017-FK.F.052). Preserved diam. c. 21 cm. CAT. n 17. (Fig. 16) Decorated bowl fragment, 3 rd - 1 st cent. BCE. Mleiha graveyard area C (SM.1988-54). 10.3 x 4.4 cm. (replica on exhibition) CAT. n 18. (Fig. 23-24) Decorated bowl, 3 rd cent. BCE. Mleiha, tomb FA-5 Tomb of Amud. (2016-FA.F.026). D. 18.4 cm. CAT. n 19. Bowl with bullhead spout, 3 rd cent. BCE - 1 st cent. CE Mleiha area 5. Bullhead spout. 2.5 x 4.5 cm. CAT. n 20. Bowl with horse protome spout, 3 rd cent. BCE - 1 st cent. CE. Mleiha area 5. CAT. n 21. (Fig. 1 & 17) Bullhead spout, 1 st cent. BCE - 1 st cent. CE Mleiha area FG, tomb FG-2 (2017-FG.F.048). H. 4.6 cm. CAT. n 22. Horse protome spout, 1 st cent. BCE - 1 st cent. CE. Mleiha area FG, tomb FG-2 (2017-FG.F.049). H. 4 cm. CAT. n 23. Aphrodite Hoplismene, 2 nd cent. BCE - 1 st cent. CE. Mleiha area 6 (ML.6-10). H. 10.9 cm. CAT. n 24. Man with bird, 3 rd cent. BCE - 3 rd cent. CE. Mleiha area G surface find (SM.1988-7). H. 18.2 cm. (replica on exhibition) 26

F. Silver dedication plaque. Several bronze and silver plaques with punched or chased dedications were discovered at Mleiha. Such metal plaques, fixed with nails to walls of shrines, are well documented in Southern Arabia. Cat. n 25 bears a standard formula. It is written in cursive South Arabian (zabur), each word separated by a vertical line: "Liʿaḏḏim(?) daughter of Maʿunlat dedicated to (the goddess) Hal- Lat this metal plaque". The deity Hal-Lat (al-lat in Arabic, literally the goddess ) was one of the main deities of ancient Arabia. Fig. 19. Cat. n 25. Silver sheet with punched dedication to the deity al-lat. 27

CAT. n 25. Silver sheet with punched dedication to al-lat. Surface find, 3 rd - 2 nd cent. BCE. Mleiha area 04-East, farmhouse. H. 6.2 cm. G. Horse and camel equipment. Camels were best suited for the harsh Arabian climate but also horses were used as evidenced by the war scene on Fig. 16 and by the discovery of several horse burials at Mleiha. Horses and camels were occasionally slaughtered and buried as part of the funerary rites. No less than 9 dromedaries, three camel hybrids and 2 horses were found buried near human graves at an area of the graveyard that is now commonly referred to as the "camel cemetery" (Mleiha area 2, see Fig. 6). In one case, a horse and a camel hybrid or bukht were found together in a single pit. Such crossbreeds between a male one-humped Arabian dromedary and a female two-humped Bactrian camel were less adapted to the climate but they were larger (Fig. 3) and could carry heavier loads. Just like horses, they were very valuable and seen as status animals. Fortunately, this animal grave had escaped the attention of the tomb plunderers. The horse still had its iron bit and 10 gold decorative discs that decorated the headgear. The exquisite whirling flower pattern is a motif that was also popular on Hellenistic gold and silver vessels. CAT. n 26. Horse trappings, 1 st - 2nd cent. CE. Mleiha area 2, the so-called camel cemetery. Iron bit, gold discs mounted on bronze rings. Diam. large disc 13.5 cm. (replica on exhibition) 28

Fig. 20. Cat. n 26. Reconstruction of the gold decorated headgear and close-up of the large medallion. 29

H. Iron armament. The hunting and warfare images on the bronze bowls highlight the importance of armament in Mleiha s society, something which is also reflected in the burial goods. Arrowheads, swords and daggers were present in large quantities and left by the looters to whom iron may have been of little value. The swords were often deliberately broken when they were placed in the tomb. There are various types of swords, straight ones with double cutting edges and falcata. These are a variant on the Greek Hellenistic kopis, a heavy slashing weapon with a hook-shaped grip and a long, forward-curving blade. Fig. 21. Cat. n 27-28. Iron falcata from tomb FK-2 and a straight sword with double cutting edge. CAT. n 27. Falcata sword. Mleiha area FK, tomb FK-2 (2017- FG.F.060a/b). 1 st cent. BCE - 1 st cent. CE. CAT. n 28. Straight sword with double cutting edge, similar to swords found with Cat. n 27. L. 44.5 cm. CAT. n 29. Bundles of iron arrowheads corroded together, similar to those found with Cat. n 27. 30

Fig. 22. Cat. n 29. Iron arrowheads found corroded together. Fig. 23. Cat. n 18. Detail of bronze bowl: man and his camel uses sword and lasso to fight a lion. 31

10 Years of Belgian Excavations at Mleiha The Belgian fieldwork is made possible by the invaluable and continuous support of Sharjah Archaeology Authority, especially by Dr Sabah Jasim, general director of Sharjah Archaeology Authority, and by Eisa Yousif, Director of the Department of Excavations and Archaeological Sites. Directors: 2009-14: Prof. Dr E. Haerinck ( ) & Dr B. Overlaet. 2014-18: Dr B. Overlaet. Field archaeologists: M. Coppejans (2010-11, 14-16), K. Couchez (2017), B. De Prez (2011-17), Dr M. Farjamirad (2012), L. Massagé (2017), Dr P. Pincé (2010, 12-13, 15-16), Dr Th. van de Velde (2009), L. Van Goethem (2012-15), A. Van Ham-Meert (2017), C. Van Hecke (2009). Engineer-Architect: A. Timmerman (2010-12). Drawing & photography: E. Smekens (2009-11), A. Mathys (2017), H. Steenbeke (2014-16). GPR-prospection: Dr L. Verdonck (2013). Prof. Dr Peter Stein (Friedrich-Schiller-Universität Jena) and Dr Patrick Monsieur (Gent University) joined the team as corresponding members, respectively for epigraphy and amphora identifications. Financial and Logistic support Sharjah Archaeology Authority (since 2009). Royal Museums of Art & History, Brussels (since 2009). Gent University (2009-2014). Belspo: IAP VII - Greater Mesopotamia. Reconstruction of its Environment and History (2012-2016). Research Foundation Flanders (2012-2019). 32

Further reading General information: * JASIM, S., UERPMANN, M. & UERPMANN, H-P. 2016. Mleiha, The Unwritten History. Surbiton: Medina Publishing Ltd. * Sharjah Archaeology is a periodical published by SAA and provides reports and papers on archaeological work and heritage in Sharjah Emirate. http://sharjaharchaeology.com/sharjah-archaeological-journal/ Reports on the Belgian Excavations: * yearly reports and papers on the Belgian activities are regularly published in Sharjah Archaeology. See vol. 13 (2013), 15 (2016), 16 (2018) and 17 (2019, forthcoming). * KUTTERER, A. OVERLAET, B., MILLER, CHR., KUTTERER, J., JASIM, S.A., HAERINCK, E. 2014. Late pre-islamic burials at Mleiha, Emirate of Sharjah (UAE). Arabian Archaeology and Epigraphy 25: 175-185 * MONSIEUR, P., OVERLAET, B., JASIM, S.A., YOUSIF, E. & HAERINCK, E. 2013: Rhodian amphora stamps found in Mleiha (Sharjah, UAE): old and recent finds. Arabian Archaeology and Epigraphy 24: 208-223. * OVERLAET, B., 2016. Misiones arqueologicas decisivas - Las excavaciones belgas de las tumbas monumentales de Mleiha. In: J. Cordoba (ed.), En los Confines de Oriente Proximo, El hallazgo moderno del pais de Magan, Museo Arqueologico Nacional, Catalogo de la Exposicion Temporal 18 de abril - 29 de mayo de 2016, Madrid 2016 : 99-100. * OVERLAET, B., 2017: Belgian Excavations at Mleiha, Sharjah (UAE) 2009-2013. Bulletin de Séances de l Academie Royale des Sciences d Outre-Mer Mededelingen der Zittingen van de Academie voor Overzeese Wetenschappen 61 (2-3): 249-267. * OVERLAET, B. & HAERINCK, E. 2014. Monumental tombs along the Arabian Caravan Routes. In: I. Moriah Swinnen & E. Gubel (eds.), From Gilead to Edom (Akkadica Supplementum 12): 205-214. * OVERLAET B., MACDONALD M., & STEIN P., 2016. An Aramaic - Hasaitic bilingual inscription from a monumental tomb at Mleiha, Sharjah, U.A.E. Arabian Archaeology and Epigraphy 27/1: 127-142. * VERDONCK, L., HAERINCK, E. & OVERLAET, B. 2015. GPR survey to explore social stratification in a pre-islamic burial area at Mleiha, Sharjah (United Arab Emirates). In: S. Lambot et al. (eds.), Proceedings of the 15th International Conference on Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR 2014): 2-7. 33

Fig. 24. Cat. n 18. Bronze bowl.