Woodhead Publishing Series in Textiles: Number 164 Denim Manufacture, Finishing and Applications Edited by Roshan Paul The Textile Institute WP AMSTERDAM BOSTON CAMBRIDGE HEIDELBERG " H" rubllbhincj LONDON NEWYORK OXFORD PARIS SAN DIEGO -; ; SAN FRANCISCO SINGAPORE SYDNEY TOKYO ELSEVIER Woodhead Publishing is an imprint of Elsevier i
List of contributors Woodhead Publishing Series in Textiles xv Preface xiii xxiii 1 Denim and jeans: an overview 1 R. Paul 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Denim fabric manufacture 2 1.3 Manufacture and finishing of jeans 4 1.4 Novel applications and environmental aspects 8 1.5 Future trends 10 1.6 Conclusion 11 Sources of further information 11 Part One Denim fabric manufacture 13 2 Cotton fibre for denim manufacture 15 J. McLoughlin, S. Hayes and R. Paul 2.1 Introduction 15 2.2 Cotton cultivation 15 2.3 Fibre properties 17 2.4 Cotton fibre processing 20 2.5 Spinning of denim yarns 26 2.6 Developments in cotton for denim 32 2.7 Future trends 34 2.8 Conclusion 35 Sources of further information 35 References 36 3 Indigo dye and reduction techniques 37 R.B. Chavan 3.1 Introduction 37 3.2 Indigo popularity for denim 37 3.3 Dyes other than indigo 38 3.4 History of indigo 39
3.5 Indigo production 40 3.6 Indigo properties 48 3.7 Reduction of indigo 49 3.8 Traditional and modern dyeing methods 57 3.9 Future trends 59 3.10 Conclusion 61 References 61 4 Indigo dyeing technology for denim yarns 69 N. Meksi and M.F. Mhenni 4.1 Introduction 69 4.2 Evolution of indigo dyeing 70 4.3 Indigo dyeing techniques 73 4.4 Indigo dyeing machinery 82 4.5 Factors affecting indigo dyeing 89 4.6 Testing and quality control 94 4.7 Future trends 101 4.8 Conclusion 101 Sources of further information 102 Acknowledgement 102 References 102 5 Dyeing of denim yarns with non-indigo dyes 107 M. Sanchez 5.1 Introduction 107 5.2 General considerations 108 5.3 Options for non-indigo dyeing 112 5.4 Non-indigo dyes for fabric overdyeing 150 5.5 Modern colouration possibilities 153 5.6 Future trends 154 5.7 Conclusion 155 Sources of further information 155 References 156 6 Weaving technologies for manufacturing denim 159 M.A. Raina, Y.S. Gloy and T. Gries 6.1 Introduction 159 6.2 Historical aspects 159 6.3 Fibres for denim manufacture 160 6.4 Yarns for denim manufacture 162 6.5 Preparation of denim yarns 164 6.6 Technologies for denim weaving 167 6.7 Denim weaving machines 174 6.8 Weaving with intelligent machines 178
vii 6.9 Manufacture of high quality denim 179 6.10 Future trends 185 6.11 Conclusion 185 References 186 Part Two Manufacture and finishing of jeans 189 7 Role of denim and jeans in the fashion industry 191 C. Regan 7.1 Introduction 191 7.2 Denim fabric and apparel business 192 7.3 Soft value of denim jeans 193 7.4 History of denim and jeans 193 7.5 Social influence ofjeanswear 199 7.6 Cultural influence of denim work wear 200 7.7 Denim as luxury attire 205 7.8 Future trends 210 7.9 Conclusion 214 References 214 8 Joining techniques for denim jeans 219 5. Hayes and J. McLoughlin 8.1 Introduction 219 8.2 Seams in the construction of jeans 219 8.3 Stitch types in jeans manufacture 228 8.4 Sewing threads for jeans 236 8.5 Sewing needles for jeans 239 8.6 Machines for making jeans 246 8.7 Fabric feed systems 249 8.8 Stitching of denim jeans 254 8.9 Sewing faults and troubleshooting 259 8.10 Attaching fastenings on jeans 263 8.11 Future trends 268 8.12 Conclusion 268 Sources of further information 269 Acknowledgements 270 References 270 9 Dyeing technologies for denim garments 271 A.K. Sarkar 9.1 Introduction 271 9.2 Garment dyeing processes 272 9.3 Garment dyeing machinery 276
viii Contents 9.4 Advances in garment dyeing 278 9.5 Testing and quality assurance 281 9.6 Future trends 282 9.7 Conclusion 283 References 283 10 Digital printing techniques for denim jeans 287 J.M. Lucas, N.J.R. Belino, R.A. Miguel, M.M. Pereira and L.S. Ribeiro 10.1 Introduction 287 10.2 Textile characteristics 289 10.3 Inkjet printing machines 291 10.4 Colour technology and management 294 10.5 Techniques for developing digital denim 301 10.6 Future trends 308 10.7 Conclusion 309 Sources of further information 309 References 310 11 Washing techniques for denim jeans 313 C.W. Kan 11.1 Introduction 313 11.2 Classification of washing techniques 315 11.3 Denim and jeans washing machines 336 11.4 Factors affecting washing effect 342 11.5 Troubleshooting in denim washing 346 11.6 Future trends 352 11.7 Conclusion 352 Sources of further information 353 Acknowledgement 353 References 353 12 Biotechnological washing of denim jeans 357 A. Colomera and H. Kuilderd 12.1 Introduction 357 12.2 Types of industrial enzymes 357 12.3 Enzymes for jeans washing 359 12.4 Biotechniques and process recipes 375 12.5 Factors affecting washing effectiveness 381 12.6 Backstaining phenomenon 389 12.7 Troubleshooting guidelines 391 12.8 Sustainable developments in washing 392 12.9 Future trends 402 12.10 Conclusion 402 Sources of further information 402
ix 13 Reduced water washing of denim garments 405 B. Garcia 13.1 Introduction 405 13.2 Techniques for reducing water in denim washing 406 13.3 Industrial application scenarios 414 13.4 Factors affecting process effectiveness 418 13.5 Testing the effectiveness of washing 420 13.6 Future trends 422 13.7 Conclusion 422 References 423 14 Finishing of jeans and quality control 425 F. Kalaoglu and R. Paul 14.1 Introduction 425 14.2 Dry and wet finishing processes 425 14.3 Printing techniques 435 14.4 Finishing of denim fabrics 436 14.5 Functional finishing of denim jeans 439 14.6 Final operations and inspection 443 14.7 Quality control in jeans production 447 14.8 Future trends 457 14.9 Conclusion 457 Acknowledgements 458 References 458 15 Comfort aspects of denim garments 461 MM. Mangat and L. Hes 15.1 Introduction 461 15.2 Comfort aspects of denim 461 15.3 Thermo-physiological comfort 462 15.4 Development of functional denim 464 15.5 Testing of comfort parameters 475 15.6 Future trends 477 15.7 Conclusion 478 References 478 Part Three Novel applications and environmental aspects 481 16 Novel varieties of denim fabrics 483 A.K. Patra anda.k. Pattanayak 16.1 Introduction 483 16.2 Pseudo denim and generic denim 483 16.3 Reverse denim 488 16.4 Stretch denims 490
X Contents 16.5 Denim of other fibres and blends 496 16.6 Biodegradable denims and their properties 498 16.7 Other types of denim 501 16.8 Future trends 503 16.9 Conclusion 504 References 504 17 Non-apparel applications of denim 507 O.E. ipnal and L. Yildirim 17.1 Introduction 507 17.2 Classification of non-apparel denim products 508 17.3 Analysis of the current situation 508 17.4 Other interesting developments 519 17.5 Future trends 521 17.6 Conclusion 523 Sources of further information 523 References 525 18 Recovery and recycling of denim waste 527 A. Luiken and G. Bouwhuis 18.1 Introduction 527 18.2 Problem with denim waste 528 18.3 Recovery techniques for denim waste 530 18.4 Recycling of denim waste 531 18.5 Development of recycled products 535 18.6 Environmental benefits of denim recycling 536 18.7 Future trends 538 18.8 Conclusion 538 Sources of further information 539 19 Effluent treatment in denim and jeans manufacture 541 N. Uzal 19.1 Introduction 541 19.2 Characteristics of wastewater 542 19.3 Techniques for treating wastewater 543 19.4 Wastewater recovery and reuse 553 19.5 Case studies 556 19.6 Future trends 557 19.7 Conclusion 557 References 558 20 Environmental impacts of denim manufacture 563 W. Schrott and R. Paul 20.1 Introduction 563 20.2 Cotton production for denim 565
20.3 Dyes for denim dyeing 566 20.4 Dyeing auxiliaries 569 20.5 Combined dyeing processes 571 20.6 Minimal application technologies 572 20.7 Auxiliaries and finishing chemicals 573 20.8 Garment washing and finishing 575 20.9 Distribution and retail 577 20.10 Future trends 578 20.11 Conclusion 578 Sources of further information 579 References 579 Index 581