Toomey 1 Kosode and the Class System of Edo Period Japan Caroline Toomey Art History 106 Art In East Asia
Toomey 2 In Japanese, the word fashion translates to ryūkō, 1 which means to flow away. In the Edo period (1603-1787 AD), Japanese fashion reached new heights and caused the structure of the class system to flow away. The kosode was a robe-like cover that preceded the kimono and was the biggest way to display class. However, the merchant class (chōnin) was beginning to monopolize the market place, and soon had access to all the latest trends of the time. As a result the Kabuki actors and the highest ranking courtesans, who also associated themselves with the chōnin, became the trend setters, and at times out fashioned the privileged class (Bakufu) by wearing intricate and elaborate designs. Due to the elaborate kimono designs worn by Kabuki actresses and courtesans, it pushed the privileged class to keep up with expensive fashion trends that caused them to be indebted to the merchant class, resulting in a power struggle in the Japanese class system. In 1615 AD, the Tokugawa, the ruling class of the time cut off trade with the Europeans. They dropped all communication with Europe except with the Dutch. The Tokuguawa with their military strength were more of a threat, and more powerful than the emperor himself. By 1634 the Tokuguawa took full control of the Osaka castle, which was the capital of Japan. Then they proceed to parade an army of 307,000 men through the streets of Kyoto. This was a display of their impervious power of the new government. On paper, the Tokuguawa maintained the largest army in the history of Japan; they were able to call to arms over 80,000 men. With their new rule they put into place a very strict and structured feudal system also called sankin kōtati, which translates to alternative attendance. 2 1 Gluckman and Takeda 1992, 211 2 Gluckman and Takeda 1992, 43
Toomey 3 Japan at this period functioned as a feudal system which was fueled by the Confucianism the belief at the time, with the privileged class at the top, controlling the famers and workers. The emperor was the will of heaven and he answered to the gods, below him were the Shoguns that were the will of the people. They were in control of the Daimyo and they would employ the Samurai to help control the populous. Famers were the next class and were considered above everybody else because they made all their own products. Famers also supplied the currency of time which was rice bails. The artisans were next in rank and also made their own products. The merchants were next in the order and they were seen as a necessary evil. The nobility of the time looked down on any one who did not make their own products, but sold what others had created. Prostitutes and courtesans were the lowest class, because they sold themselves. The irony in this was that by the end of the eighteenth century, the lower class had more influence than the upper class, and because of the lack of restrictions they were able to live life in a way that the Bakufu could not because of their beliefs. 3 The new imperial family put in place urbanization during this period that flourished. This was because a lot of the towns that were formally port towns now became huge mercantile centers. This urbanization then created jobs; the dyers and the weavers needed people to help supply the demand. This also created competition among the population which also grew in Japan in this time, and the supply and the demand became great. These types of city centers also had some benefit to the shogun and daimyo.the thought was that this urbanization would make it easier for the samurai and the daimyo to control the population. They wanted to control the merchants and segregate them away from the 3 Whitney and McClain, 1991, 425
Toomey 4 farmers. Most of the major cities were flourishing under a military rule. This was because the military had a very strict control on the regulation of banks and trading. This allowed more jobs, and more demands on the part of the merchants. This lavish lifestyle drove a demand to have expensive designs and details added to the kosode. 4 The kosode was transformed into a new canvas for artists, and was reflective of popular art at the time. The demand for goods was as far reaching as the country. Most merchants would have two shops, one in the city and another in the country. The technique that was exceedingly popular was the nuishime shibori, this was a tie-dye, and was considered a dip dye. The Kosode with chrysanthemums (figure1) is a great example of this popular form of dying. 5 By the middle Edo period a new type of dying become incredibly popular called the Yuzen process. This process was created by a monk named Yuezen Hiinakata. This was driven by the demand to put actual calligraphy and brush work on the kosode. The process however was long and tedious because it takes an elaborate seven steps. Due to the labors and materials involved the processes was very costly and only the wealthy and elite Kabuki actors and successful courtesans were among those that could afford these types of kimonos 6. These kimonos imitated the brushwork of hanging scrolls, as show in Uchikake with Bamboo and Mist (figure 2). In this you can see the heavy brushwork in the leaves of the bamboo and the fine detail which was commonly seen in the stems. These kimonos soon became an important of daily life in the Edo period. Fashion for kimono s came and went quickly. Cotton, which was introduced by the west, made the kimonos easier to produce. In the early Edo period (from Kan ei to Gokyo) dark colors 4 Gluckman and Takeda 1992, 47 5 Gluckman and Takeda 1992, 50 6 Mochinaga 1986, 34
Toomey 5 became normal for the elite kimonos. The lighter colors would be on the top and the heavier colors on the bottom. This was probably done to prevent staining. In Kosode with Noshi and Flowering Plants (figure 3) there is a clear divide between light and dark colors that were used. This was common to the Kabun style kimonos which were noticeably two toned. The etching of this kimono is incredibly detailed and abstract, which adds to the contrast of colors. 7 The during the Kan ei style fine embroidering using metallic threading and gold leaf were used, and became very popular 8. These foreshadowed a more mature fashion that would soon be created by the Yuzen dying. What also came into popularity was the Uchikake, which was an unbelted kosedo that was worn over all robes. They were most popular in the sixteenth century, but during the Edo period they were only worn during special occasions, and padding was added to the hem of the garment. One of the most popular trends was the sleeves of the kimono. For men, the sleeves did not have much significance. For women however, the sleeves became a symbol of one s status. For younger unmarried women, long swinging sleeves were normal as well as for prostitutes and courtesans, because it symbolized their youth 9. These kosode were also called furisode In Matsukaze dancing beneath the robe of the coutier Yukihira, a young women is shown dancing under a willow tree wearing a furisode (figure 4). For older married women the sleeves were shorter. Married women wearing long sleeves would have been viewed as out of place. In the middle Edo period bigger was better, and the more fabric, color and designs worn, the more fashionable one looked. This greatly affected the way the women walked and carried themselves. Soon the sleeves became too 7 Gluckman and Takeda 1992, 85 8 Gluckman and Takeda 1992, 9 Crihfield 1993, 34
Toomey 6 big and long to handle. These trends lead to the invention of the obi. These garments originally started out as small sashes that were wrapped around the waist. Quickly the obi became a popular accessory to the kosode. The width of the obi varied according to class, and the lower classes had a wider obi and were required to tie it in the front. 10 These new garments soon became fashion statements and status symbols of their own. Due to the strict Confusion rule of the time, most high ranking women did not have quick access to fashion therefore they were not the trend setters. Women of the merchant class loved to model the newest styles along with the kabuki actors, and the high ranking courtesans. 11 These were the people who were mostly the ones setting the trends in the Edo period. Their influence would then trickle up to the samurai, daimyo, and shoguns. These pressures to look good affected the samurai class the most. In this time of peace, they were unemployed. The pressure to look good and keep up the appearance of their status caused many to become indebted to the merchants 12. Thus begin the slow rise of power that the merchants had. Besides the wives of the merchants, the kabuki actors were the biggest trend setters of the Edo period. The chōnin loved to go to the theater and watch the Kabuki plays. This was because the storyline of the play would talk about the difficulty they faced in the Edo period. Women came to love the theater, not only for the actors and the plays but for the latest fashion trends that would be on display. As writer Seji Kenmom Roku stated, All women in the cities, married or unmarried, take no greater pleasure than in Kabuki. No one is more idolized than the Kabuki actors, and women never cease in their constant 10 Dalby 1993, 34 11 Sheldon 1983, 484 12 Gluckman and Takeda 1992, 30
Toomey 7 infatuation with them. The plays no longer imitate society; rather, society imitates the plays as models for life. 13 The men that played these parts were considered more sexually appealing than actual women. The actors had a very close relationship with the dyers and print makers. A new color or style would spark and immediate fashion craze, the new trends would be known by the actors that wore the style on the stage. The print makers and critics would then popularize the style. Portrait of an Onnagata (figure 5) shows what the ideal women in kabuki was supposed to look like. He is figured in an S shape in order to make his body appear more feminine 14. He is wearing a popular, expensive kimono design which consists of snowflakes and dark colors, and a large obi that is tied in the front. High ranking courtesans and geisha in the Brothel district were some of the most well dressed of the time. In the early parts of the period the city of Edo had a fire that destroyed most of the city. The Tokugawa took this opportunity to move the pleasure quarter out of the city to a more removed location. In Edo, the only licensed brothel was Yoshiawar. Prostitutes were not let out of the brothel district unless there was death in the family or other complications 15. Because more were not allowed to leave this commune, it turned into a small city with its own style of dress and its own language. Women of these districts were known as Iki, which roughly translates to sexy 16. The House of Assignation is where the rich could meet with the top ranking courtesans. Ukiyo-e writers Ihara and Isogai described interaction between a courtesan and one of the wealthy patrons, when a courtesan has a client, she dresses in the fine apparel of original design, for instance, in the very popular dark purple silk covered with minute tie-dye points, she parades to an ageya, 13 Sheldon 1983 484 14 Hicks 1998, 25 15 Hicks 1998, 25 16 Dalby 1993
Toomey 8 kicking a foot outward at each step as in a figure-eight, holding her shoulders straight and twisting her hips<.>the courtesan arranges her clothing so that red crepe de chine undergarment will flip open to reveal a flash of white ankle. 17. This shows the level at which women would go to dress and prepare themselves for a patron, while still modeling the latest fashion trends. Higher ranking women would tend to wear more expensive kosode, but most women would just wear stripes. The merchant class would see the trends in the brothel district and would try to the fashion in their own kodode. People of the Edo period were fascinated by the stories of the high ranking courtesans. Therefore they were a popular subject for the Ukiyo-e prints, which would often tell stories about courtesans and their lovers. These wood block prints were used to advertise the pleasure quarters and the courtesans in the Ukiyo-e prints were always shown wearing the latest fashion trends 18. In Tamagawa shucho s Evening of the Dog (Yoruinu no koku) (figure 6) there are two courtesans who are shown wearing what was the height of the fashion at the time. They have their hair elaborately styled and they are modeling large obis. The woman on the left who is kneeling is wearing an Uchikake along with a vivid kosode. By 1722 the fashions trends of the kosode were extravagant, and expensive. It was required by the Tokuguawa that each class had to look the role that they were born into. In the early parts of the Edo period, gold and silver metallic tones and glittering stitching were popular. With these trends being worn by the Chōnin, kabuki and high ranking courtesans, the rest were trying to keep up with their lavish and complex taste. The Chōnin liked to model complex street scenes on their kosode. They also liked images that would reflect 17 Hicks 1998, 26 18 Hicks 1998, 27
Toomey 9 everyday objects, like fans and hanging scrolls. As seen in Uchikake with fans Decorated with plants and flowers of the four seasons ( figure 8) Soon these images would take up the enter kosode. The Shoguns preferred more abstract designs, and instead of cities they would prefer to put famous landscapes and imagery of gardens on the kosode as seen in Uchikake with Cherry Blossoms, water, ducks and Characters. The shoguns would look to the chōnin for the way the styles moved around the kosode. If the chōnin were wearing the image on one side, then the Shoguns and samurai would try to mimic this pattern 19. Women were known to wear up to seven or eight layers of fabric in the winter, as seen in Portrait of a standing courtesan (figure 9). However not everybody could keep up with these trends. These detailed patterns, along with the demand for new trends drove the kosode and the obis to unimaginable detail and prices. The coming and going of trends proved to be problematic for Bakufu who were accustomed to a high standard of living. The economy at this time was mostly agrarian, and with the population growing most of these resources was being used. The Bakufu and the rest of the privileged class tried to keep up the wealthy appearance and the high life style. This overspending caused a lot of Bakufu, daimyo, and samurais to become in debt to the chōnin and soon they became better in downed than the then the Bakufu. By 1768 the Bakufu arranged what was called a kien, where all debts of the privileged class would be erased after five years and the interests rates would be lowered form twelve percent back down to ten percent 20. The restrictions didn t stop there. The Bakufu, thought that no one 19 Gluckman and Takeda 20 Sheldon 1983
Toomey 10 should live better than they did. They started to impose restrictions on dress. Certain patterns, designs, and colors, especially red, were now for the privileged. 21 The chōnin class responded in a strong but passive manor. If the Bakufu and samurais did not have to pay off their debt, they would simply hold items from them. They would also give them inferior items that were not as well made while raising their prices. Money lenders at the time would use security loans to insure payment, and anyone who broke these contracts would no longer be trusted and sold to 22. The restrictions on dress were futile on the part of the Tokuguawa. Even though the color was restricted many found subtle ways to incorporate the color into their kosode. Men and women would wear it under the kosode, appearing ever so slightly from under the sleeve, as seen in Two Beauties (figure 8). The craze got so out of control that some went to the lengths to by expensive silk underwear from India. But in the end, the restrictions did little to restore the privileged class s dignity. Like the Japanese word suggests, ryūkō happened to the class system. Japanese fashion became so popular that people became obsessed with modeling the latest trends. These obsessions lead people to over buying obsessively and becoming in debt to the merchant class. It also lead people to look to their inferiors, which was something that was considered taboo and out of place during a period of such strict confuciust rule. 21 Gluckman and Takeda, 1992 22 Sheldon 1983, 480
Toomey 11 Figure 1 Kosode with Chrysanthemums Early nineteenth centry Tiedying (nuishime shibori) and paste-resist dyeing (yuzen) on Yellowtwill-figured plain-weave silk (saya)( 65 1/4 x 48 5/8) National Musame of Japanese History, Nomura collection
Toomey 12 Figure 2 Uchikake with Bamboo and Mist First Half Eighteenth Century ink, gold leaf, and powder on white figured silk satin (rinzu)64 ¾ 48 7/8 in. (164.5 x 124.1) lent by the Metropolitan Museum of Art
Toomey 13 Figure 3 Kosode with Noshi and Flowering Plants, First Half of the nineteenth centry Tie-dyeing (nuishime shibori), Silk and Metallic thread embroidery, and traces of stenciled gold leaf (suir-haku) on white and brown parti-colored (somewake) figured silk satin (rinzu) 57 ¾ x 52 in (146.7 x 132.1 cm)
Toomey 14 Figure 4 Figure 5 ( Figure 4) Matsukazedancing Beneath the Robes of the Courtier Yukihira C. 1770 Artist s signature; koryūsai ga hashira-e color woodblock print 69.7 x 12.8 cm National Gallery of Victoria, Felton Bequest, 1909 (Figure 5) Portrait of an onnagata c.1713 Artist s signature Nihon-e Miyagawa Chōshun zu Hanging scroll [kakemono] ink and color on paper 110.0 x 53.0 cm The Art Gallery of New South Whales
Toomey 15 Figure 6 Evening, Hour of the Dog [Yoru - inu no koku] c. 1804-29 relief colour artist signature Kiku Eizan hitsu oban, color woodblock print 38.0 x 25.0 woodblock Gift of National Panasonic (Australia)
Toomey 16 Figure 7 Uchikake with fans Decorated with Plants and Flowers of the Four Seasons Late eighteenthearly nineteenth century Paste-resist dyeing (Yuzen) and silk and Metallic thread embroidery on green silk crepe (chirimen) 63 3/8 x 51 ¼ (161.0 x 130.2)
Toomey 17 Figure 8 Uchikake with Cherry Blossoms, water, ducks and Characters First half of the nineteenth centry tie-dyeing (kanoko shibori) and silk and metallic thread embroidery on red figured silk satin (rinzu) 96 5/8 48 in (176.8 121.9 cm) Bunka Gakuen Costume Museum
Toomey 18 Figure 8 Portrait of a standing courtesan 1780 Artist s singnature Toto Utagawa Toyoharu kore[o] zu [su] hanging scroll ink and color silk 161.5 x 84.2 The Art Gallery of New South Whales
Toomey 19 Figure 9 Chobunsai Eishi (1756-1829) Two Beauties Late eighteenth-early nineteenth Century Haning scroll; ink and color on Silk 32 3/8 x 12 7/8 in (82.2 x 32.7) Entrusted to the Azabu Museun of Arts and Crafts
Toomey 20 Obi with Lions and Peonis Early Nineteenth Centry Silk nineteenth centry silk and metallic thread embroidery on light blue silk satin (shusu) 11 5/8 x150 7/8 (29.5 x 383.2 cm) Kyoto National Museum Bibliography Mochinaga, Brandon Reiko. Country Textiles of Japan, The art of Tsutsugaki. New York, Weatherhill, 1986. Dalby, Liza Crihfield. Kimono; Fashioning Culture. New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1993 Gluckman, Dale Carolyn & Takeda, Sharon Sadako; Kosode in Edo-Period Japan. Los Angeles, 1992. Hall John Whitney & McClain, James L. The Cambridge History of Japan, Volume 4 Early Modern Japan; Cambridge University Press 1991 Hickey, Gary; Beauty and Desire in the Edo Period Japan: Australia, Thames and Hundson, 1998 Sheldon, Charles D Merchants and Society in Tokugawa Japan Modern Asian studies, Vol 17 No 3(1983) pp. 477-488, Cambridge University Press (April 13, 2009 Http:www.jstor.org/stable/312302 Totman, Conrad. A History of Japan. Malden, Massachusetts. Blackwell Publisher. 2000 On Cover The courtesan Akome from the house of Ogiya, [Ogiya nai Akome] from the series One of the Hundred and Eight Heroes of the Water Margin [tsūzoku Suikoden Gōkestu Hyakuchachinin] c 1820 s