UNIT 9 AFRICA
AFRICA BEFORE 1800 25,000-1000 BCE The oldest paintings in Africa date to the Paleolithic period and are among the most ancient artworks known. 1000-1 BCE The Nok culture produces the oldest preserved African sculptures in the round. 1-1500 CE Sculptors at Igbo-Ukwu perfect lost-wax bronze casting. African builders erect Islamic and Christian shrines in Mali and Ethiopia. Stonemasons construct the royal palace complex of the Great Zimbabwe empire. 1500-1800 Benin sculptors produce a wide range of ivories and cast bronzes glorifying the royal family. The Kuba carve wood statues of seated kings called ndop. Sapi artists working for Portuguese patrons produce elaborate ivory salt-cellars, exemplifying early exchange between Africa and Europe.
Great Mosque at Djenné Founded c. 1200; rebuilt 1906-07 Adobe Mali Subject Matter https://www.youtube.com/wa tch?v=na-uiq1fdoc Formal Characteristics Context Function
King Koi Konboro, the 26 th ruler of Mali and the first Muslim sultan there, commissioned the mosque in the 13 th century. It was made using local materials [adobe is sun dried mud brick] and in a design traditional to Djenné. Vertical buttressing helps drain water during the rainy season. The mosque is the largest mud-built structure in the world and has been added to over time. The building was razed in 1830 by a Muslim ruler who considered the size and decoration offensive to the faith. The Mosque fell in to disrepair until the French took over Mali in 1892. It is debated whether the French or Malian mason s guilds were responsible for the repair that was completed in 1907. The mihrab is the central of the three towers on the qibla wall. The towers are topped with ostrich eggs which is a symbol of fertility and purity in Malian culture.
Torons, projecting wooden beams, work both aesthetically and functionally as they support workers during annual re -plastering of the walls. This recoating of sacred clay during the festival of Crepissage de la Grand Mosque [literally meaning Plastering of the Great Mosque]. The entire community contributes and music is even played to entertain workers. Many foreign investors have tried to rebuild or make additions in order the make the mosque more traditional, such as tiling the sand floor or rebuilding in concrete. Despite this the community of Djenné have worked to keep the cultural integrity of the site.
Conical tower and circular wall of Great Zimbabwe c. 1000-1400 Coursed granite blocks Shona peoples Southeastern Zimbabwe Subject Matter https://www.youtube.com/watc h?v=i1krjqmfeic Formal Characteristics Context Function
Great Zimbabwe was a political and economic center in the southeastern part of the continent. The Great Enclosure was first occupied in the 11 th century. There is evidence of trade with Mesopotamia and China long before European contact. Zimbabwe means stone houses in the modern Shona language. It is thought that the enclosure was a royal residence. Only 200-300 of the elite class would occupy the space. There are specified areas for a ruler, his wives, nobles, and open courts for ceremonial gatherings.
The wall of the enclosure, built in ashlar masonry and standing over 30 feet tall, was meant to symbolize the power of the elite and preserve their privacy. These walls flow and curve along 800 feet in a stabilizing inward slope. Eight birds carved of soapstone were found atop columns in the ruins of the Great Zimbabwe and believed to have been originally installed along the Eastern Enclosure. Likely, these were symbols of royal power and the birds are even on the flag of modern Zimbabwe.
Mud and thatch huts were later adjoined to the walls and seats were built up out of the material in the ceremonial court yards. Solid, conical towers are throughout the enclosure in various heights. These are thought to represent grainery towers. This would have been a symbol or royal power and generosity as a ruler would receive tribute and then re-distribute in times of need.
Ndop [portrait figure] of King MishemiShyaang mambul c. 1760-80 Wood Kuba peoples Democratic Republic of Congo Subject Matter Formal Characteristics Context Function
Ndop, wooden carving of King Shyaam ambul angoong, in the collection of the British Museum Kuba is part of the densely wooded central part of Africa and maintained an oral history for centuries. To aid in this tradition, ndop figures were made to capture the spirit of rulers in images that were idealized according to the cultural conventions. This served to preserve the names and spiritual likeness of kings who had died even a century before in the tradition of an oral history. These portraits were often kept in the women s quarters of the palace as they were thought to ensure successful childbirth. The surface of these sculptures was rubbed with oil to preserve the material and because the shiny surface was representative of the king s power.
Ndop portraits are idealized and meant to capture the spirit rather than the personal likeness. One convention of idealization was the emphasized head. All ndop figures have a 1 to 3 ratio in proportion [3 heads high] as the head was considered the seat of intelligence and power. Each nyim, or king, chose an ibol [royal symbol] and a geometric motif at the start of his reign. These were used to signify his rule and differentiate one ruler from another in historical portraiture. mambul s ibol was a drum with a severed hand. mambul commissioned this image in 1710. Ndop were collected by the colonial minister of the then Belgian Congo in 1906. This specific work was purchased by the Brooklyn Museum in 1961 and is among the oldest preserved wooden statues from Africa
Ndop [portrait figure] of King MishemiShyaang mambul c. 1760-80 Contextual photograph Kuba peoples Democratic Republic of Congo The ndop sculpture is adorned in royal regalia of bracelets, arm bands, belts, and a headdress. This photograph of a Kuba ruler enthroned gives evidence to the practice of royal regalia. He also holds a sword, which is seen in the left hand of the ndop figure in the non-aggressive position of the handle facing out. These elaborate costumes were meant to represent the rulers court, his greatness, and his responsibilities. Often rulers are buried with such materials after death.
Wall plaque, from Oba s palace 16 th century Cast brass Edo peoples Benin [Nigeria] Subject Matter Formal Characteristics Context Function
Benin Bronzes on display at the British Museum Benin, west of the lower reaches of the Niger River in present -day Nigeria, was likely established in the 13 th century. Kingship was hereditary and considered sacred; the oba is believed to be descended from the founder of the dynasty. Arts were made to honor the ruling king, or oba, his family and his ancestors. These brass plaques likely decorated wooden pillars in the palace and would have documented a chronological lineage. Roughly 900 brass plaques were made between the 16 th and 18 th century.
The plaques are made using the lost wax process with the figures projecting in high relief. Many include lower relief detailing in the background. Most compositions are laid out symmetrically with the oba shown at the center. Hierarchy of scale further highlights the oba and his importance. Similar to the ndop portraits, the head of the oba is enlarged to symbolize his will and power.
The oba in this work is on horse back and is flanked by attendants, two of which shield him. Only the oba is allowed to be shielded in this way which may indicate a ceremony is taking place. The oba is elaborately dressed to signify his high rank and is depicted larger than any other figure within the composition, even dwarfing the horse he is on [the horse is also a symbol of power as they were very expensive to keep in this region and were a product of trade with the Portuguese].
Wall plaque, from Oba s palace 16 th century Contextual photograph Edo peoples Benin [Nigeria] The jewelry and headdress of the oba in the brass plaque depict the coral jewelry in this contextual photo. The red coral relates to a legend that one of the first oba swam to confront the sea deity in order to obtain Fire Coral. The coral came from trade with Europe and in that way symbolized the oba s wealth.
Many of the elements in the wall plaque reference trade with Europe, specifically Portugal. The horses were of western influence, some coral was imported, and the brass material itself would have been obtained through trade[the Benin melted down brass armbands from the Portuguese for the raw material]. Trade negotiations with England began to deteriorate, and British looted many artworks in a siege in 1897. At this time the plaques were removed from their posts, their chronology being destroyed, and eventually ended up in collections of the west.
AFRICA 1800-1980 1800-1900 San rock paintings record contemporaneous events. Fang,Kota, and Kalabari Ijaw artists produce reliquary guardian figures to venerate ancestors. Royal arts include thrones. 1900-1980 Royal arts continue to flourish in highly stratified societies. The recording of artists names becomes more common. Throughout the continent elaborate masks are produced to be danced at masquerades. Personal adornment is a major art form including body painting, complex coiffures, rich textiles, and lavish regalia of kings.
Reliquary figure [byeri] c. 19 th to 20 th century wood Fang peoples Southern Cameroon Subject Matter https://www.youtube.com/wa tch?v=os4q5tn8oju Formal Characteristics Context Function
The Fang people collected relics [usually bones] of the deceased and placed them in special containers used in ancestor worship. Stylized figures carved of wood protected the relic containers. These guardian figures are called bieri or ancestor sculptures. These statues would sit on the edge of the cylindrical relic container and ensure that no harm came to the remains of important clan leaders and protect the living from the deceased. When separated from the container, the bieri lose their sacredness and can be destroyed.
The features of the bieri were meant to emphasize the cycle of life. Proportions of an infant yet musculature of an adult, prominent navel and genitals celebrating life yet a somber and prayerful gesture symbolizing death. The Fang were an itinerant people and therefore had a need for portable shrines that guard and venerate the relics of their ancestors. The figures were also used during male initiation rituals to teach the young of their ancestors. The remains of these people were considered potent and could be harmful to some people. In this sense the statue acts as a talisman and a warning.
Power figure [Nkisi n kondi] Late 19 th century Wood and metal Kongo peoples [Democratic Republic of the Congo ] 3 10 ¾ Subject Matter Formal Characteristics Context http://www.ar tbabble.org/video /dma/dallas -museum -ar t- collection-nkisi-nkondi Function
A Nkisi is a container for sacred forces; it can both capture and release spiritual powers or medicines. N kondi means hunter. These are considered more aggressive minkisi [pl], though they are benevolent to the owner. Figures larger in size are likely used for communities rather than individuals. These figures are consecrated by trained priests [nganga]using precise ritual formulas to activate the sculpted form. The spirit can be called on to harm, heal, bless others, or see over oaths. Many times the spirit is called on to maintain social order [punish criminals, combat witchcraft, oversee legal proceedings, cure illness, etc.]. Certain elements with various purposes are inserted in to the head or the belly of the figure [ie. Claws encouraging the spirit to grasp something]. This opening, called a kondu, is always covered with a reflective surface [here a cowrie shell is used] seen as a connection to the otherworld. Nails and pegs are inserted in to the surface of the figure to prod the spirit to action.
M inkisi f ro m t h e c o llectio ns o f t h e Chicago A r t I n stitute, t h e M E T, t h e Dallas M u seum o f A r t, and UCLA
OLOWE of ISE Veranda post of enthroned king and senior wife [Opo Ogoga] c. 1910-14 Wood and pigment Yoruba peoples Subject Matter https://www.youtube.com/wa tch?v=yc9njnx58wg Formal Characteristics Context Function
This veranda post is one of four carved by Olowe for the palace courtyard of the Yoruba kingdom in presentday Nigeria. This particular post shows Opo Ogoga [ogoga means king] seated on a stool and wearing a crown topped with a bird. His senior wife stands behind him as the seemingly supportive element of the post [figural posts do not actually bear weight] and the supportive element of the ogoga s reign. It is the senior wife s responsibility to crown the king at his coronation. The three figures below the ogoga represent a junior wife, a fan bearer [now missing], and the trickster god Eus. This is intended to communicate that the king s power is founded on the community surrounding him.
Females are seen as vital and powerful in Yoruban culture. The spirit of elder women is described as our mothers and is often represented in the form of a bird. The inclusion of the ogoga s senior wife as a support system behind his reign represents respect to the covert, spiritual authority of our mothers balancing the king s worldly power. The spiritual power of the senior wife is depicted in her bulging eyes. The gap in the top teeth is considered a sign of beauty. The marks on her face are ritual scarification showing her superior status as a respected spiritual individual.
Olowe of Ise was considered a master sculptor to rulers and wealthy families of Yoruba. He designed and carved many works for palaces in Yoruba including veranda posts and doors and made ritual items such as bowls and other containers. His work is characterized by high relief figures and intricate surface detailing. His veranda posts are carved in the round with elongated figures that project beyond the capital. They are asymmetrically organized, exhibit an excellent use of negative space, and were often painted to distinguish figures from one another.
Veranda p o sts in t h e c o llections o f t h e M E T, t h e Denver A r t M u seum, a n d t h e G u g g enheim
Ikenga [shrine figure] 19 th to 20 th century Wood Igbo peoples [Nigeria] Subject Matter https://www.youtube.com/wa tch?v=krikhc8u8zi Formal Characteristics Context Function
Ikenga means place of strength. These figures act as status symbols and ritual pieces in the upwardly mobile society of the Igbo. These tie directly to the belief that an Igbo man s ability to accomplish things successfully is embodied in the right arm which is associated with skills that involve tools, weapons, economical effectiveness, and the ability to win contests. These figures are given offerings for strength, success, and achievement as they require blessings before use. These personal shrines are often destroyed when their owner dies so as to prevent another person using it. Ikenga vary in size, sometimes a new and more elaborate figure is commissioned as one achieves more. Ikenga are carved of hardwood, seen as a man s art form, and have horns alluding to the aggressive nature of male animals. They are often depicted with a sword or staff in the right hand and a trophy head in the left. Some ikenga show symbols of prestige and title-taking such as patterns of scarification [called ichi] or being presented on a stool.
Sika dwa kofi [Golden Stool] c. 1700 gold over wood and cast-gold attachments Ashanti peoples [south central Ghana] Subject Matter https://www.youtube.com/watch? v=6bsww4ke_hs Formal Characteristics Context Function
A shanti flag Sika dwa kofi means the Golden Stool born on a Friday and derives from the legend that shapes the Asante notion of statehood. Once filled with in -fighting, the Asante were united around 1680 under Osei Tutu who defeated an overlord with the help of his advisor and priest. The Golden Stool was summoned from the sky by the priest and landed on Osei s knees validating his right to rule. The stool in considered the containment of the spirit, or sunsum, of the whole Asante nation. All regalia and stools of lesser chiefs were collected and buried so only the Golden Stool remained to create unity under a national identity and communal destiny. Sunsum is the energy that inhabits things you frequently come in contact with. Stools are regarded as status symbols, gifted to children only when they come of age, and are very connected to an individual s sunsum. When one leaves a room, they turn their stool on its side so other spirits cannot invade and inhabit the stool. When a person of status dies their stool is consecrated and kept in family or community shrines.
A shanti sto o ls f ro m t h e c o llections o f t h e MET, N elson- Atkins, a n d t h e S m ithsonian
Sika dwa kofi [Golden Stool] c. 1700 Contextual photograph Ashanti peoples [south central Ghana]
Here the current Asantehene, or ruler, is shown seated next to the stool. This exhibits the balance of the head of state with the spirit of the nation. Only the king is allowed to touch the stool and no one is allowed to sit on it. The stool itself sets on its side on a chair which sits on a mat of elephant hide. The stool must not touch the ground. The bells attached to the stool are intended to warn the king of danger. In 1900 a British representative insisted that he should be honored with sitting on the Golden Stool. This was seen as a violation of the nation s sunsum and was met with uproar and rebellion. The War of the Golden Stool followed, lasting from March to September of 1900. The stool was hidden away and buried. British annexation and subsequent Asante independence resulted from the scandal.
Lukasa [memory board] 19 th to 20 th century Wood, beads, and metal Mbudye Society of the Luba peoples [Democratic Republic of Congo] Subject Matter Formal Characteristics https://rubberchocolatephone.fil es.wordpress.com/2014/07/shar pscannermail -gatechedu_201 30902_190831_001.jpg Context Function
Lukasa are mnemonic devices and conceptual maps used exclusively by members of the Mbudye, a high-ranking society which introduces special knowledge illustrating Luba political systems, historical chronicles, origin legends, and territorial diagrams of local chiefdoms. The reading or performing of a memory board is based on an individuals level in the society, the higher -ranking the more refined one s understanding of the language. Lukasa boards are unique and created by members of the Mbudye society. They are often cinched in the center to be easier to hold in the left hand as the information is traced and read using the right index finger. Shells and beads are colored and organized in patterns or groupings to represent information on topics such as medicine, religion, royal lineage, or the location of capitals. The back of many memory boards is meant to look like a tortoise, a symbol of royalty.
Lukasa [memory board] 19 th to 20 th century Contextual photograph Mbudye Society of the Luba peoples [Democratic Republic of Congo] Luba rule is dynastic, so history and ancestry are closely tied to politics. The Mbudye society was formed in the 1700 s and is in charge of reading this history of genealogy, court ceremony, migrations, divisions of territory, and locations of former palaces [called spirit capitals that are tombs of divine kings].
L u kasa in t h e c o llectio ns o f S t a n ford University, t h e MET, a n d t h e B ro o k lyn M u seum
Bundu mask 19 th to 20 th century Wood, cloth, and fiber Sande Society of the Mende peoples [West African forests of Sierra Leone and Liberia] Subject Matter https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f N1qz8tp89g Formal Characteristics Context Function
Bundu masks are an important factor in the initiation rights of young women. The Sande Society controls the initiation, education, and acculturation of Mende girls. The dance of the bundu mask is the only known masquerade tradition where women take part. The masks, commissioned by women but carved by men, represent Mende ideals of female beauty, morality, and behavior. The large forehead represents wisdom, the small mouth and ears an avoidance of gossip, the plaited hair represents the order of an ideal household. The elaborately carved hairstyles represent wealth and status and are said to come in a dream to the leaders who commission the masks. The neck design represents a chrysalis form [directly associated with initiation ritual], represents health and abundance of food, and references female water spirits [called Sowei] emerging from their underwater homes.
Bundu mask 19 th to 20 th century Contextual photograph Sande Society of the Mende peoples [West African forests of Sierra Leone and Liberia] When the Bundu masks are performed the dancer s identity is concealed beneath the rafia. During the masquerade, the dancers act as intercessors between the ancestors the Mende people. Women leaders who dance the masks act as priestesses and judges during the 3 year cycle that the Sande Society controls the ritual calendar [this control is then switched off with male leaders for 3 years]. Leaders of the Sande Society also act as midwives and treat medical problems of women and children in the community.
B a ssa, G o la, M ende, a n d Va i S owei m a sks f ro m t h e Denver A r t M u seum a n d t h e CUNY QCC Ar t Galler y
Aka elephant mask 19 th to 20 th century Wood, woven raffia, cloth, and beads Bamileke [Cameroon, western grassfields region] Subject Matter https://www.youtube.com/wa tch?v=t-4o17cw9cw Formal Characteristics Context Function
Owned and worn by members of the Kuosi, the elephant mask represents power and wealth. The Kuosi were originally a society of warriors who acted to regulate social order. The Bamileke king, or Fon, is representative of a supreme being and the ancestors, having supernatural and political power, but does not control human behavior. The Kuosi were secret associations who worked on behalf of the king to enforce societal expectations. They also protected the king and acted as a balance to power, reminding the Fon that he is not above reproach. Members of the Kuosi today are wealthy, titled men who act as emissaries of the king. The Aka mask would be worn during an elephant dance called the tso. A tso is danced during biennial performances sponsored by the royal court. Traditionally a tso could be danced during public rituals, major festivals, and funerals. The mask shows wealth in the use of imported beads which are arranged in abstracted symbols of royalty such as the iron double gong. Geometric motifs are common and some animal symbols could be present such as a frog [representing fertility] or spider[ representing the earth in which ancestors are buried].
A ka masks f ro m the F ield M u seum, Denver A r t Museum a n d the S m ithsonian
The elephant mask would be worn with a costume including indigo dyed cloth, monkey fur, a leopard pelt, and a feather headdress. The leopard and elephant are considered symbols of rule. It was believed that the Fon had the power to transform in to an elephant, and that leopards had the supernatural power to transform in to humans. The headdress is made of red tail feathers from the gray parrot. The red feathers are a rare material, produced in small quantities by each parrot, and are another symbol of wealth and status. Various uses of color symbolism appear in the beadwork of the mask and the costume. Black represents the night which is seen as an active time in which the divide between the living and the dead is thin. White is representative of bones, ancestors, medicines, and healing. Red is considered a color of kingship representing life force. Aka elephant mask 19 th to 20 th century Contextual photograph Bamileke [Cameroon, western grassfields region]
Female [Pwo] mask Late 19 th to early 20 th century Wood, fiber, pigment, and metal Chokwe peoples [Democratic Republic of Congo] Subject Matter https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=avnun89x090 Formal Characteristics Context Function
The Chokwe follow matrilineal descent and the Pwo is danced to honor founding female ancestors in the lineage and celebrate ideals of female morality and beauty. Pwo originally referred to adult women who had bared children. Mwana pwo are iterations of the masks that refer to a youthful beauty. The masks depict abstract ideals of behavior and physical appearance. The eyes are often closed representing the age and experience of the women being celebrated, they are knowing and do not need to live wide -eyed. Small dots on the brow around the eyes represent the ritual tattoos of Chokwe women. Kaolin, or white clay, often surrounds the concave area around the eye lids to represent spiritual sight. Though the Pwo represents ancestors and might manifest helpful beings, the hairstyles are often made in the current fashion to make the mask relatable when danced.
P wo and M wana P wo f ro m the c o llectio ns o f S o t h eby s, A I C, t h e MET, a n d t h e Chazen
These masks would be made and performed by men. The performers wear costumes of braided fibers to hide their identities. They emulate the mannerisms of Chokwe women in their dance, moving slowly and gracefully. When a masquerader dies they are buried with their mask.
OWIE KIMOU of KAMI Portrait mask [Mblo] Early 20 th century Wood and pigment Baule peoples [Côte d'ivoire] Subject Matter Formal Characteristics Context Function
Mblo performances involve a succession of dances which escalate in complexity and importance. These culminate in a tribute to a distinguished community member. Masks are commissioned to be made in a likeness of the individual s character, not their physical presence. The honoree would receive this mask at the end of the performance as it is considered their artistic double. These are usually commissioned to honor the head of a dance troop. Even masks honoring individual women are danced by men. Occasionally the honoree will join the dance engaging with their namesake or ndoma. Mblo masks were not displayed unless performed with music and other dancers. The performing of mblo masks ceased in the 1980 s and has been replaced by other styles.
Other Mblo p o r t r a it m a sks f ro m t h e c o llectio ns o f t h e B ro o k lyn M u seum a n d t h e MET Some elements of the mask represent honored traits or morals. The broad forehead links to intellect, the downcast eyes equate respect, the line from the nose to the mouth shows age, and the stylized beard represents experience. Other elements are decorative and added for embellishment such as the horns along the top. The metal shapes affixed to the wood would catch light while the mask is danced adding visual interest but also alluding to health.
Portrait mask [Mblo] Early 20 th century Contextual photograph Baule peoples [Côte d'ivoire] This specific mask represents Moya Yanso, pictured here with a family member holding her mask. She was a dancer and the mask was made in her honor after she had reached an age when she could no longer regularly lead dances herself. The mask was commissioned by an admiring group, carved by Owie Kimou around 1913, and was danced in her honor by male relatives. Yanso accompanied the dances of this mask until her health no longer allowed at which point her granddaughter took over. The mask was sold to a private collector in the mid-1990 s.