Key concepts in nutshells Period:- I. Early Harappan culture - Before 2600 BCE II. Mature Harappan culture-2600bce to 1900 BCE III. Later Harappan culture-after 1900 BCE - 1500 AD Extent of Harappan civilization:- Northern boundary-manda Eastern boundary-alamgirpur Characteristics of the Harappan Civilization :- (i) Southern Boundary-Daimabad Western boundary-sutkagendor Planned Urban centre-unique feature of Mohan-jo-daro-Two Sections a. The Citadel b. The Lower Town (ii) Laying out drainage (iii) Domestics Architecture- Other features (i) (a) warehouse / Granary (b) Great Bath (c) Brick used for construction of buildings (d) Double story building THEME-1 BRICKS, BEADS AND BONES The Harappan Civilization Seals and Sealings used to facilitate long distance communication (ii) Use of weights, usually made of stone called chart, generally cubical, with no marking. (iii) Burials-to lay the dead in pits were found in Harappan Civilization some graves contained pottery and ornaments indicating a belief that these could be used in after life. (iv) Use of enigmatic script-writing found in objects like seals, copper tools, rims of jars, terracotta tablets, jewellery, bone rods. - Some archaeologists are of the opinion that Harappan society had no rulers, whereas other archaeologists feel that there was no single ruler but several rulers. 1
- Several explanation for the decline of Harappan civilization are Climatic changes, deforestation, excessive floods, the shifting and / or drying up of rivers. Metals Known :- Scripts:- Craft:- Gold, Silver, Copper, Bronze. The Harappan scripts are not yet undeciphered. There are 375-400 signs. The script was written from right to left. Chanhudaro was totally involved for craft production. They were experts in bead makings, shell cutting, seal making, Weight making. Lothal was also one of the important places for craft production. Bullock carts and Boats. V. S. A (2 Marks) Q.1 Our Knowledge about the Indus Valley Civilization is poorer than that of other civilizations, why? Because - - We are not capable to read the script of that age till now. - Dependency on only archaeological sources.i.e. Buildings, seal, beads etc. - For other civilization literary sources are available unlike Indus Valley Civilization. Q.2 List the raw material required for craft production in Indus Valley Civilizations and how these might have been obtained? Modes of Transportation:- - Stone -like carnelian, jasper, crystal quartz, and steatite. - Metal - like- copper, bronze, gold. - Shell, faience and terracotta - A. They established settlement near the source of material -eg Nageshwar, Balakot - B. They might have sent expeditions to areas such as the Khetri region of Rajasthan (for copper) and south India (for gold) Q.3 What was the confusion in the mind of Cunningham while studying Harappa Civilization? Method of procuring material for craft production- 2
- He used the accounts left by ChineseBuddhist pilgrims who had visited India between the fourth and seventh century. - He thought that Indian history began with the first cities in the Ganga Valley. Q.4 What were the differences in techniques adopted by Marshall and wheeler in studying Indus Valley civilization. - Marshall tended to excavate along regular horizontal units, measured uniformly throughout the mound ignoring the stratigraphy of the site. Due to this techniques valuable information about the context of these finds was irretrievably lost. - Wheelers recognized that it was necessary to follow the stratigraphy of the mound rather than dig mechanically along uniform horizontal lines. Q.5 What were the features of settlements of pre- Harappa period? - They had no large buildings. - There was a prevalence of agriculture and cattle rearing - Some people were also engaged in sculpture. - There was no well-planned network of roads and drainage system. Q.6 How did the Harappans obtain red colour of carnelian? - Harappans obtained red color of carnelian by firing the yellowish raw material and beads at various stage of production. Q.7 How do we know about the social difference among the Harappans? - By study of the structure of burials and things found from these burials. - By classifying artifacts into useful and luxurious things. Q.8 How you can say that the people of Mohenjodaro were concerned about their privacy? - On the basis of residential buildings & special structures. - The main entrance of the houses was made in such a way that it did not give a direct view of the interior or the courtyard. - There were no windows in the walls along the ground level. Q.9 Mention any four items found in the graves of the Harappans? - Jewellary of both men and women ornaments consisting of three shell rings, a jasper (Semi precious Stones) Beads and copper mirror. 3
Q.10 What were the animals of Harappans civilization? - Pet animals :- Cattle, Sheep, Goat, Buffalo, Pig - Wild animal: - Boar, Deer, Ghariyal. Q.11 List the food items available to the people in Harappan civilization? - Products taken from plants - Fish and flesh - Wheat, Millet, Pulses, rice etc. Q.12 How you can say that there was a break between the early Harappan and the late Harappan Civilization? - There is evidence of large scale burning at some places or sites. - The abandonment of certain settlements S. A. (4 Marks) Q.13 Why is Harappan script considered an enigmatic script or mysterious script? OR What are the main characteristics of Harappan Script? - Because it is yet to be deciphered. Its mystery has still not been solved yet. - It was not alphabetical. It had too many signs; all the signs symbolized certain things. - The sign of this script were of the period 375 to 400. - The script has been found on a variety of objects. Q.14 Write a note on the agriculture technology of Harappans? - The prevalence of agriculture is indicated by finds of grains in various sites of civilization Archaeologist have found evidence of a ploughed field at seals and terracotta sculpture indicates that the bull was known and oxen were used for ploughing. - Two different crops were grown together. - Canals and wells were constructed for irrigation. Traces of canals have been found in all the Harappan site of Shortughai in Afghanistan, Water reservoirs have been found in Dhaulavira. Q.15 How can you say that the Harappan culture was an urban one? Ans - The cities was well planned into upper and lower town. - The roads were straight and wide. - The houses were made of burnt bricks and contained more than one storey. Every house had a well and bathroom. 4
- The Drainage system was excellent with house drains emptying into street drains. - Existence of public buildings. - Lothal had a dockyard and was an important trading Centre. Q.16 Write a note on the drainage system of Harappa? - The drainage was made of mortar lime and gypsum. - They were covered with big bricks and stones which could be lifted easily to clean the drain. - Smaller drains from houses on both the sides were laid on the main channel. - Pits were provided for sewage for the houses. Q.17 Discuss the functions that may have been performed by rulers in Harppan civilization? - Some archaeologists say that Harappan society had no rulers and that everybody enjoyed equal status. - Others feel there were no single ruler but several. - Under the guidance and supervision of the rulers, plans and layout of the city were prepared. - Big buildings, Palaces, Forts, Tanks, Wells, Canals, granaries etc were constructed under the supervision of rulers. - Roads, drains were also constructed and cleanliness was maintained under the overall supervision of ruler. - The ruler might have taken interest in promoting the farmer to increase production and the craftsmen to promote different handicrafts - He maintained and controlled extra ordinary uniformity of Harappa's artefacts like - Seals, Weight and bricks. - During foreign attack and natural disaster he used to play an active role by providing security and food, - He used to issue common acceptable coins or seals, weight and measurements. Q 18- Write a short note on the seals of Indus valley people. - More than 2000 seals have been found at the various sites. - They are made up of various materials such as steatite, faience, ivory, pottery etc. - They are very informative regarding dress, ornaments, hair styles etc. - By the seals we know about the religions, commercial activities, etc. 5
Q.19- What do you know about trade and commerce of Indus valley civilization? - Internal Trade: - was advanced Mohenjo-Daro, Harappa were main trade Centre. Heavy and small weight has been found at these sites. These are made up in the multiple of two as 1:2:4:8:16 upto 12,800. - There was strict control on weight and measure. - International trade - They had trade relation with other countries such as Egypt, Oman. - The trade was carried both by sea and land - Probably the metals like gold, silver, Tin and copper and precious stones were imported from the other countries, Q.20 - How did Harappan civilization come to an end? - By Floods - It is speculated that a sudden flood might have submerged the various town and buried them under the thick layer of mud. - Due to the change in the course of Indus River. - Climatic change - It is also possible that there was climate change and drought took place due to deforestation. - Earthquakes - It is also probable that the nature itself turned the whole land upside down. - Aryan Invasion - Some scholars say that Aryans were responsible. Value Based Questions Q 1:- What value do you attach to the work of Sir John Marshall in leaving India three thousand years older than he had found her? - He was the director general of Archaeological Survey of India - By his effort it was proved that there existed a great civilization in India which was contemporary of Mesopotamia. - For this great - work we attach the value of thank fullness, indebtedness Long Answer (8 Marks) Q.21 How do archaeologist reconstruct the past? - Some schools have tried to explain the important causes which led to the abandonment of the mature Harappan sites by 1800 B.C. Some of them are as follows:- - Recovering artefacts through excavation. - Classification of finds that finds are whether tools or weapons or ornaments or 6
both or something meant for ritual use. - An understanding of the function of an artifact is often shaped by it resemblance with present day things. Beads, pots are obvious examples. - Archaeologists reconstruct religious beliefs and practices by examining seals, some of which seen to depict ritual scenes - Archaeologists often move from known to unknown that is from present to past regarding the reconstruction of religious practices. - Remains of crops or pits are studied to identify food. - By observing the different layers of sites they try to find out different things for the information of Socio-economic conditions, religious and cultural life of past people. - Archaeologists also try to identify the function of an artefact by investigating the context in which it was found. - Use of indirect evidence eg. for clothing they depend on indirect evidence like description in sculpture. Source Based Questions Read the given passage carefully and answer the Questionss that follow:- "Evidence of an "invasion" - Deadman Lane is a narrow alley, varying from 3 to 6 feet in width. At the point where the lane turns westward, part of skull and the bones of the thorax and upper arm of an adult were discovered, all in very friable condition, at a depth of 4ft 2in. The body lay on its backs diagonally across the lane. Fifteen inches to the west were a few fragments of a tiny skull. It is to these remains that the lane owes its name. FROM JOHN MARSHAL, Mohenjo-Daro and the Indus Civilization, 1931. - Sixteen skeletons of people with the ornaments that they were wearing when they died were found from the same part of Mohenjo-Daro in 1925. - Much later, in 1947, R.E.M. Wheeler, then Director - General of the ASI, tried to correlate this archeological evidence with that of the Rig-Veda, the earliest known text in the subcontinent. He wrote: - The Rig-Veda mentions pur, meaning rampart, fort or stronghold. Indra the Aryan wargod is called purandara, the fort destroyer. - Where are - or were - these citadels? It has in the past been supposed that they were mythical... The recent excavation of Harappa may be thought to have changed the picture. Here we have a highly evolved civilization of essentially non- Aryan type, now known to have employed massive fortification. What destroyed this family settle civilization? 7
- Climatic, economics or political deterioration may have weakened it, but its ultimate extinction is more likely to have been completed by deliberate and large - scale destruction. It may be no mere chance that at a late period of Mohenjo- Daro men, women, and children, appear to have been massacred there. On circumstantial evidence, Indra stands accused. FROM R.E.M. WHEELER, "Harappa 1946", Ancient India, 1947. In the 1960s, the evidence of massacre in Mohenjo-Daro was Questionsed by an archeologist named George Dales. He Demonstrated that the skeletons found at the site did not belong to the same period: Whereas a couple of them definitely seem to indicate a slaughter, the bulk of the bones were found in contexts suggesting burials of the sloppiest and most irreverent nature. There is no destruction level covering the latest period of the city, no sign of extensive burning, no bodies of warriors clad in armour and surrounded by the weapons of war. The citadel, the only fortified part of the city, yielded no evidence of a final defense. FROM G.F. DALES, "The Mythical Massacre Mohenjo-Daro", Expedition, 1964. As you can see, a careful re-examination of the data can sometimes leads to a reversal of earlier interpretation. Q1. Name the archeologist who presented this source? Ans: John Marshall Q2. Which argument of the destruction of Harappa civilization, does this excerpt indicates? Ans: - This except indicates that the Harappa civilization was destroyed by foreign invasion. Q3:- Who corrected this evidence with RigVeda? Why? R.E.M.Wheeler. Rig-Veda mentions pur, meaning rampart, fort or strong-hold. Indra, the Aryans' war-god is called purandara, the fort destroyer. Q4:- Who propounded the theory opposite to this? How? Ans :- George Dales. He hesitates to accept that this invasion was carried out by the Aryans. He demonstrated that the skeletons found at the site did not belong to the same period: Whereas a couple of them definitely seem to indicate a slaughter, the bulk of the bones were found in contexts suggesting burials of the sloppiest and most irreverent nature. There is no sign of extensive burning, no bodies of warriors clad in armour and surrounded by the weapons of war. QUESTIONS BANK: VERY SHORT ANSWERS - Q.01: What is the meaning of culture? - Q.02: Who is the father of Indian Archeology? - Q.03: What are the sources to know Indus Valley Civilization? SHORT ANSWERS - Q.01: Explain drainage system of this civilization. - Q.02: What were the main Industries in Indus Valley Civilization? 8
LONG ANSWERS - Q.1 Howdo archaeologist reconstruct the past? MAP BASED QUESTIONS - On the outline map of India Show the main archelogical sites of Harappan Culture :- 9
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