TEXT Introduction: After the paleolithic period, the next stage in India is variously labeled as Late Stone Age, microlithic or mesolithic period. Microliths are the main industry of the period. The first microliths were discovered by A.C.L. Carlleyle in 1867 from the Vindhyan rock shelters and this was followed by more discoveries by J. Cockburn and Rivet Carnac in the nineteenth century. In the first half of twentieth century, L.A. Cammiade, K.R.U. Todd, G.R. Hunter and D.H. Gordon reported microliths from different parts of the subcontinent. The term mesolithic is conventionally applied in India to denote the cultural stage represented by microlithic industries not associated with pottery and generally antedating the earliest farming-based village cultures. The evidence for this stage in India is both qualitatively and quantitatively richer than that of the preceding stages of the Stone Age. Distribution Pattern of the Mesolithic Culture : Systematic and scientific works by different scholar have brought to light several mesolithic sites in the country. Some of the major works were conducted by R.K. Varma in Uttar Pradesh; R.V. Joshi and M.D. Khare in Madhya Pradesh; H.D. Sankalia in Karnataka, V.N. Misra in Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh. Microliths have been reported practically from all over the subcontinent. In the northern part of India, several sites have been reported from Rajasthan and Gujarat. The mesolithic sites are known both from western and eastern Rajasthan. The upper paleolithic period was succeeded by this mesolithic period. The subsistence economy of this period continued to be based on hunting and gathering. There was a marked growth in human population as is attested by the significantly increased number of sites. Below is listed some of the major excavated mesolithic sites in India as well as the excavators of the sites: Tilwara in Rajasthan by V.N. Misra Bagor in Rajasthan by V.N. Misra Langhnaj in Gujarat by H.D. Sankalia Sarai Nahar Rai by G.R. Sharma Lekhahia in Uttar Pradesh by R.K. Varma Baghai Khor in Uttar Pradesh by R.K. Varma Morhana Pahar in Uttar Pradesh by R.K. Varma
Mahadaha in Uttar Pradesh by G.R. Sharma Damdama in Uttar Pradesh by R.K. Varma and J.N. Pal Bhimbetka in Madhya Pradesh by V.N. Misra Adamgarh in Madhya Pradesh by R.V. Joshi and M.D. Khare Birbhanpur in West Bengal by B.B. Lal Sanganakallu in Karnataka by H.D. Sankalia Principal Environments preferred by the Mesolithic People : Mesolithic sites have a wide distribution in India and cover almost the entire country. The following are some of the principal environments preferred by the mesolithic people: Sand dunes: In Gujarat and Marwar hundreds of dunes of varying sizes dot the alluvial plain. In Gujarat these dunes often enclose a shallow lake or pond which was the source of aquatic food for the inhabitants. The dunes themselves were covered with thorny scrub vegewhich supported a rich fauna. Human occupation took place on the top of the dunes. In Marwar the dunes along perennial lakes as well as others near seasonal sources of water were inhabited. In Rajasthan dunes are not so common, but wherever they exist the mesolithic man occupied them. Rock shelters: The Vindhya, Satpura and Kaimur hills in central India are very rich in caves and rock shelters. Some examples of rock shelters which were occupied by mesolithic people are Bhimbetka, Adamgarh etc. These forests produce a large variety of plants with edible flowers, fruits, seeds and roots. Water was available near the shelters either from natural perennial springs or from seasonal or perennial streams. This vast rocky country is ideally suited for a hunting-gathering way of life. Alluvial plains: Numerous mesolithic sites are located on alluvial terraces along river banks in all parts of the country. Birbhanpur on the Damodar is one of them. Rocky plains: In Mewar numerous microlithic sites occur on low rocky outcrops which were probably better wooded in pre-agricultural days and occupied by mesolithic people. On the Deccan plateau, microlithic sites are common both on hilltops and the flat rocky plain. Lake shores: Mesolithic settlements in the Ganga valley were centered on the shores of lakes formed by abandoned meanders of changing rivercourses. The mesolithic settlers had ample food supplies from the lakes as well as the dense primeval forests of the fertile alluvial plains.
Coastal environments: A number of microlithic sites are known very close to the coast, such as on the Salsette Island and on the teri dunes. Though no organic remains have survived at any of the known sites, it seems certain that their inhabitants drew upon marine food resources. Typo-Technology during the Mesolithic Period: The technology of the mesolithic period is primarily based on microliths. These are tiny tools made from microblades by blunting one or more sides with steep retouch. The microblades were mass-produced by pressure technique. The commonly found beautifully fluted cylindrical or conical cores and thin parallel-sided blades testify to the high skill of the mesolithic craftsmen in the production of microblades. These blades were then retouched on one or more edges, mostly by steep blunting, to produce a variety of microlithic types such as blunted-back blades, obliquely truncated blades, points, triangles, crescents, trapezes and drills. The technology of producing a large number of thin, strictly parallelsided blades from a single core by pressure flaking was, however, characteristic of the mesolithic. Except in parts of south India where very fine grained quartzite was available and used, in all other areas people switched over to chalcedony and chert for making these new tools. Quartz was also occasionally used. The main tool types are: backed blades obliquely truncated blades points crescents triangles trapezes These microliths were used as components of spearheads, arrowheads, knives, sickles, harpoons and daggers. They were fitted into grooves in bone, wood and reed shafts and joined together by natural adhesives like gum and resin. Evidence for such hafting comes from later sites in India and from mesolithic and neolithic sites in the Near East, Africa and Europe. The use of bow and arrow for hunting became common in this period, which is evident from many rock paintings in central India. Small flake tools like side, end, round and thumb-nail scrapers, and burins also form part of these industries.bifacial points made by pressure flaking are a characteristic feature of the mesolithic industries of coastal dunes of southern Tamil Nadu and Sri Lanka. Bored stones are believed to have been used as weights in digging sticks and as net sinkers.
Similarly, shallow querns and grinding stones also occur at several sites. No plant remains have as yet been recovered from any site. But at several sites, such as Tilwara, Bagor and Bhimbetka, shallow querns and rubbers are very common, suggesting an extensive use of plant foods. These new technological elements led to enhanced efficiency in hunting, collection and processing of wild plant foods. Heavy duty tools like choppers and core scrapers have been found occasionally at mesolithic sites in Orissa and along the West Coast. Some Important Sites: Bagor In 1967, V.N. Misra discovered the site of Bagor on the left bank of Kothari, a tributary of the Banas river. It is a large and prominent sand dune covering an area of about 200 m east-west and 150 m north-south and rises to a height of about 6 m above the surrounding plain. The site was excavated from 1967 to 1970 which yielded settlements having more substantial structures, stone-paved floors, pottery and a rich stone industry. In the later phase metal and wheel-made pottery also occurs. To date, Bagor is the best studied mesolithic site in the subcontinent. A deposit of 1.5 m at Bagor has been divided into three phases and five layers. The site reveals an uninterrupted settlement over a period of 5,000 years. The site represents basically a single culture undergoing evolution through time by the appearance of new material traits and decline or disappearance of others. On the basis of the material changes, the following three phases of the Bagor culture have been recognized. Phase I (50-80 cm deposit) is marked by extensive stone-paved floors and occasional circular alignments of stones probably to hold plastered reed walls. Numerous bones, many of them charred and split open, as also stone pebbles, used both to break the bones and to make microliths, were found in this phase. Querns and rubbers indicate use of plant food. Only one extended adult burial with head pointing west was found; the grave was inside the habitation and had no funerary appendage. Hunting-gathering economy with the possibility of domestication of sheep, goat and cattle is indicated. Phase II (30-50 cm deposit) shows contacts with the contemporary Chalcolithic cultures, indicated by the use of copper tools and beads. Other features of Phase I continue but a handmade pottery with incised and applied designs appears for the first time. Burials are more elaborate having pots and pans, copper tools and ornaments. The skeletons all in the habitation area were found interred in a flexed position. From one
grave alone 36 stone and bone beads were discovered. One spearhead, three arrowheads and one awl comprise the copper repertory, all found in burials. Phase III (35-75 cm deposit) was restricted to the central part of the mound. Microliths and animal bones become scarce. Iron tools, wheel made pottery, glass beads and brick structure form new traits. A faunal analysis indicates a declining dependence on wild game. The animal remains are a mixture of wild and domestic varieties and comprise sheep/goat, buffalo, humped cattle, pig, blackbuck, chinkara (Gazella gazella), chital (Axis axis), sambhar (Cervus unicolor), hare, fox and mongoose; tortoise and fish bones were also found. On typo-technological consideration, the beginning of the culture may be placed in the geometric phase of microlithic industries unassociated with pottery. Subsequently, handmade pottery was added to the microlithic and bone assemblage. In the absence of any radiocarbon date from the lowermost levels of Phase I, the excavator places the beginning of the culture around 5000 BC. The lower limit of Phase II can be placed in the middle of third millennium BC, i.e., contemporary to the Harappans, if not earlier. But for fixing the upper limit of the phase, no date is available. On the basis of the occurrence of iron arrow-heads, glass beads and wheel-thrown pottery in Phase III, the excavator extends the upper limit of Phase II to the middle of the first millennium BC or a little earlier. Langhnaj The site of Langhnaj is situated at a distance of 59 km from Ahmadabad, almost to its north. The site has been excavated several times between 1942 and 1963 by H.D. Sankalia of Deccan College, Poona and the University of Baroda, as a result of which a good number of microliths, 14 human skeletal remains, animal bones, etc. have been brought to light. Langhnaj has a sandy deposit of about 2 metres divisible into three phases. Phase I has produced microliths, burials, animal bones and an occasional potsherd. The main microlithic horizon lay between 90 cm and 1.5 m. Out of the 14 skeletons exposed so far, 11 have been found between these depths. In the debris of the habitation were found the skeletal remains of men, women and children kept intentionally in a highly flexed posture. The 13 skeletons excavated earlier followed east-west orientation, the head being placed in the east. The faunal remains recovered from the site are all of wild species
comprising bovids, rhino, swamp deer (Cervus duvaceli), chital (Axis axis), hog deer (Axis percinus), Nilgai (Boselaphus tmgocamelus), mongoose, and wolf. Besides there were found the bones of tortoise, fish, rodents and squirrels. Except those of rodents and mongoose, most of the bones were broken and charred, probably for eating. On the basis of typo-technological consideration, H.D. Sankalia dated the Mesolithic phase, the phase associated with the burials to a time going before 2500 B.C. Teri Sites A rich microlithic industry is associated with the red sand dune (teri) sites of the Tirunelveli district at the extreme end of the peninsula. A. Aiyappan, F.E. Zeuner, B. Allchin and V.D. Krishnaswamy explored many sites in this area. Due to older transgressions of the sea, there are three terraces of sand-dunes, at 1.5 m, 6 m and 15 m, quite inland from the present day coast. The dunes obviously must have formed during arid conditions, but man occupied them only during wetter conditions as indicated by weathering of sand. Even the microliths are stained red by the hydrated ferric oxide, a product of weathering. F.E. Zeuner assigned the 6 m terrace, from which most of the microliths derive, to circa 4000 B.C. The teri microliths are made both from chert and quartz; the former is more dominant. Discoids, crescents and points are the main tool types. The pressure flaking used on some almond-shaped points and other tools has no parallels in India. From two teri sites chopping tools are also reported. Thus the teri assemblage is distinguished by a dominance of flake tools and discoids and a paucity of blades and almost an absence of geometric forms. Though the industry thus shows an archaic character, it cannot be dated beyond 6000 B.C. Dwelling Structures: Increased food security during this period led to reduction in nomadism and to seasonally sedentary settlement. This is reflected in the large size of mesolithic sites, thickness of habitation deposit both in openair and rock shelter sites, and the presence of large cemeteries, particularly in the Ganga plains. There is evidence for rudimentary structures at some sites. At Sarai Nahar Rai there was a large oblong floor made by ramming burnt clay nodules. On the floor occurred several hearths and plenty of bones and microliths. Four postholes on the sides of the floor suggest a superstructure of some kind. At Bagor and Tilwara numerous stones were
brought on the dune to make stable floors. At Tilwara, structural activity is denoted by stones arranged in a circular fashion with diameters up to 3 m. Hearths with charred bones and ash and stone querns and rubbers were found from these structures. In one of the shelters of Bhimbetka a stone wall was made probably to partition off a part of the shelter. Disposal of Dead: The first evidence of intentional disposal of the dead comes from this period. Mesolithic human burials have been found at Bagor in Rajasthan, Langhnaj in Gujarat, Bhimbetka in Madhya Pradesh, Lekhahia, Baghai Khor, Morhana Pahar, Sarai-Nahar-Rai, Mahadaha and Damdama in Uttar Pradesh etc. At the last three sites cemeteries containing many individuals have been found. The dead were buried in graves both in extended and crouched position. In some cases two individuals were buried in a single grave. The dead were occasionally provided with grave offerings which include chunks of meat, grinding stones, stone, bone and antler ornaments, and pieces of haematite. Artistic Expressions: Rock Painting: Another significant feature of the mesolithic period is art, mostly in the form of paintings. Several thousand of rock shelters in the Vindhyan sandstone hills in central India contain enormous quantities of paintings on their walls, ceilings and in niches. They are found in both inhabited and uninhabited shelters. The paintings are made mostly in red and white pigments which were produced from nodules found in rocks and earth. Pieces of haematite used for producing pigment have been found at Bhimbetka and other sites. The paintings mostly depict wild animals and hunting scenes. There are also scenes of fishing, plant food and honey collecting, social and religious life. The paintings throw a light not only on the aesthetic sensibilities and artistic creativity of the mesolithic people but also on their behaviour with respect to hunting and food gathering techniques, dwellings, their social and religious activities and contemporary fauna. Though a number of stylistic and chronological phases can be distinguished on the basis of superimposition, subject-matter and painting styles, the paintings can be broadly divided into two cultural and chronological stages. The poorly preserved earlier paintings are mostly dominated by the depiction of wild animal life. In these one sees the animals that still live in the area, as also others which have now disappeared, like the rhinoceros, elephant, tiger and gaur or Indian bison. The paintings are characterby naturalism, accurate rendering of the animal body, depiction of the animals in their various postures and moods like standing, moving, running, grazing, etc. There are scenes of hunting
with men hunting individually or in a group with spears and bows and arrows. The spears and arrows have barbs and tips which seem to be made of microlithic forms. There are also scenes of trapping of animals and of collection of wild fruits and honey. The later paintings which overlie the older ones and are in a much better state of preservation depict scenes that relate them to the historical period. They show processions of men riding caparisoned horses and elephants, and carrying metal-tipped spears and bows and arrows. More frequently they show battle scenes with men fighting with swords and shields. Both human and animal figures in these paintings are highly stylized and show considerable deterioration in the technique of portrayal. Material Culture of the Mesolithic Period: The mesolithic people had little by way of material culture. Stone querns, rubbers and hammers occur at Bhimbetka. A few bone points, some bone pieces with incised decoration and an animal rib with a long narrow perforation possibly to be used as a pendant has also been found. It is only in the later contact with contemporary metal-using and farmingbased economy that we find them acquiring such items as pottery, metal tools and stone beads for ornaments. Chronology: The mesolithic period is well dated by a large number of 14C dates from many sites in western and central India. These dates range from ca. 10,000 to 2,000 B.P. The earliest 14C date from a mesolithic deposit in a rock-shelter at Bhimbetka is 7790 ± 220 B.P. Another date associated with a burial in another shelter of the same place is 6025 ± 110 B.P. The earliest date from Adamgarh is 7450 ± 130 B.P. and that from Bagor is 6430 ± 200 B.P. The beginning of the Mesolithic culture can therefore be put at c. 8000 B.P. and as more dates from excavated sites become available this antiquity is likely to be pushed back. Two dates from Bagor Phase II are 4710 ± 105 B.P. and 4060 ± 90 B.P. Several dates from the upper levels of the Bhimbetka shelters have readbetween 3000 and 2000 B.P. It is significant that occupation in the caves as well as on sand dunes came to an end soon after iron tools made their appearance in these deposits. Conclusion: Mesolithic sites have a wide distribution in India and cover almost the entire country. Of the three important sites studied so far, Bagor is the best studied mesolithic site in the subcontinent. The technology of the
mesolithic period is primarily based on microliths. The commonly found beautifully fluted cylindrical or conical cores and thin parallel-sided blades, testify to the high skill of the mesolithic craftsmen in the production of microblades. Increased food security during this period led to reduction in nomadism and to seasonally sedentary settlement. The first evidence of intentional disposal of the dead comes from this period. Another significant feature of the mesolithic period is art, mostly in the form of paintings.