A Teachers Guide for POWER & TABOO SACRED OBJECTS FROM THE PACIFIC 28 September 2006 7 January 2007 Bowl with two carved figures made of wood (kou), pearl-shell, ivory, Hawaii, the British Museum. Including: an introduction to the exhibition notes on how to use this guide discussion points for use in the gallery or classroom key images curriculum links and themes further museum/school activities Suitable for teachers of KS3-4 but can be adapted for KS2 Department of Learning and Information T: 020 7323 8850 E: learning@thebritishmuseum.ac.uk
GENERAL INFORMATION EXHIBITION OUTLINE Polynesian cultures of the last three centuries are among the most artistically inventive and diverse on the planet. This exhibition explores the power of the gods in the Polynesian islands of the eastern Pacific. It considers the Polynesian concept, tapu, from which the word taboo is derived, referring to practices to control and contain the potentially dangerous power of the gods. Although interpretations of its meaning have changed over time, tapu continues to be an important concept in modern Polynesia. For modern Polynesians, the objects on display in this exhibition form a tangible link to their ancestors, and as such are revered as powerful and sacred treasures. Power & Taboo features more than 80 objects collected between 1760 and 1860 from the British Museum s unparalleled collection from this region. The objects, which include Hawaiian feathered cloaks and helmets, large wooden temple images and ornaments made from fibre, shell and nephrite jade, are set against reproductions of over 50 paintings and drawings made in the period to evoke a vision of the Pacific. Power & Taboo demonstrates the continuing influence of these objects throughout the world. Pablo Picasso and Henry Moore both took inspiration from the art of the Pacific. Several examples of art, literature and poetry produced in response to the Museum s collection by both Polynesians and Europeans will be featured in the exhibition. EXHIBITION LAYOUT Power and Taboo is arranged in 9 sections HOW TO USE THIS GUIDE This teachers guide provides the background and suggestions for a teacher bringing a school group to the exhibition. It is aimed at secondary students, although the activities can easily be adapted to KS2. Some of these activities have been developed from KS2 resources created by the Sainsbury Centre for Visual Arts (see www.scva.org.uk/education/resources). The guide is based around the nine sections of the exhibition. In each, the theme of the section is summarised and a key object selected as an example of the section. Discussion points can be applied to any object in the section. Three possible thematic approaches are explained on p 10 with suggested activities. For a successful visit, students should have a clear line of enquiry before going into the exhibition and know exactly what information and ideas they must collect. CURRICULUM LINKS ART AND DESIGN CITIZENSHIP HISTORY RELIGIOUS STUDIES LITERACY AND ENGLISH PRACTICAL INFORMATION FOR A VISIT The exhibition runs from 28 September 2006 7 January 2007 and is open from 10:00 17:30 Monday to Wednesday and weekends, and 10:00 20:30 on Thursday and Fridays and is free. School groups should state when booking their visit that they are planning to visit the exhibition. School groups should book in advance for the Ford Centre schools facilities at the Museum Box Office T: 020 7323 8181 E: boxoffice@thebritishmuseum.ac.uk. 5 6 4 7 3 2 1 8 9 MAORI ARTIST IN RESIDENCE Renowned contemporary Maori artist, George Nuku, will be creating new works of art inspired by the treasures in the exhibition in the Great Court of the British Museum from 30 October to 4 November. Do take your pupils to meet him (see page 10).
SECTION 1: INTRODUCTION For the islanders of the eastern Pacific, the gods were always present in the world. The power of the gods could be dangerous as well as life enhancing, and much work was devoted to keeping it contained. The term tapu from which taboo derives - describes the practices of controlling godly power. These ideas lay behind the creation of many of the objects displayed here. Most of the objects in the exhibition were collected between 1760 and 1860 by European explorers and missionaries, before European settlers had made much impact on the region. The objects were contemporary and in current use when they were collected. How these objects were worn and used is illustrated in over 50 paintings and drawings from the period. Although much change has taken place, islanders today have a strong sense of continuity with their ancestors. Feather god, Hawaiian islands made of basketry, olona fibre cord, feathers, pearl-shell, seeds, dog teeth (81 cm). SECTION 2: LIVING IN THE EASTERN PACIFIC The Eastern Pacific, an area known as Polynesia, consists of a group of islands scattered across a wide ocean. Canoe, Tuamotu Islands: made of wood with fibre lashings (387 cm) Eastern Pacific islanders were sophisticated boat-builders and navigators, readily able to cross the vast ocean by using the stars and ocean currents and by reading the clouds. They were fishermen and farmers, growing fruit trees and vegetables and raising pigs, chickens and dogs. They were skilled craftspeople, working in wood, fibre and feathers to create objects of great power and beauty. They were poets, musicians, dancers and orators. Eleven closely linked languages were spoken across the eastern Pacific. Many traditional skills are remembered and practised today, despite the destructive impact of colonialism. The Eastern Pacific today: locate it on a map, find out what the environment and climate is like, explore what natural materials are available for artist and craftspeople. Craftsmanship: look at the carved objects and find the tools used to make them. Find out how people learned these skills. The Senses: When looking at the objects, think about what you would see (people, landscape, clothing, fauna), smell (food, flora, the sea), hear (music, languages, the sea) and feel (clothing, materials, temperature, ground, environment) if you lived in these islands.
SECTION 3: CHIEFS, WARRIORS AND PRIESTS Polynesian gods influenced every aspect of daily life, including the way in which society itself was arranged. Polynesian societies were hierarchical. The families of chiefs inherited power and authority through long lines of descent from the gods. Chiefs, warriors, priests, craftsmen, commoners and slaves each had particular privileges and responsibilities. Hierarchies varied from one society to another, and in some places an individual s status could be changed, for example through marriage, adoption or warfare. Handle of fan made of bone and plaited coconut leaf fibre, Marquesas Islands (49 cm) Dress, ornaments and tattoos were often used to express role and status. The portraits and objects in this section, which all come from the Marquesas Islands, show the visible distinctions between different kinds of people in one society. All the portraits were produced by members of Russian, French, British and US expeditions. Mouwatere, son of a Marquesan chief. Engraving after a drawing by a Russian explorer. He is holding a fan very similar to that shown in the exhibition and a staff and has intricate tattooing all over his body, suggesting he was an important member of society. (The British Library) Symbols of Power: Discuss and compare regalia and symbols that indicate roles in different societies and in particular how power was displayed using the body. Patterned Bodies: explore the designs of the tattoos on these important people examine how the patterns are repeated and use the contours of different parts of the body. Status and the Body: Look carefully at the portraits by the European and US expedition members and at how they show these regalia. Also look at other ways that status is suggested in portraiture, through stance or facial expression.
SECTION 4: THE NATURE OF THE GODS Across the eastern Pacific people perceived their gods (atua) as dangerously powerful and capable of both good and evil. Many rituals were concerned with controlling godly power. Maori Door lintel depicting the creation story, when the god of the sky and the goddess of the earth were pushed apart by their son, Tane, bringing light into the world (131 cm) Average height of 11 year old Average height of woman Islanders understood that the gods formed the world by separating the earth from the sky. They recognised the earth and sky as two distant and original deities. There were four major active gods of the forest, the sea, agriculture and war. They had different names in different languages and their specific roles and relationships varied from place to place. Beneath them was a hierarchy of many lesser gods or spirits. The Polynesian term atua, though usually translated as god, actually has a more complex meaning, referring to gods, spirits and ancestors who have become gods. The gods were always part of the world, but could be especially present in certain objects and people. On occasion, chiefs, as descendants of the gods, could embody godly power. Images of the gods could be either naturalistic or abstract and were often displayed in open-air temples. Figure of the Hawaiian god Ku, the god of war, carved from breadfruit wood. Four rows of stylised pigs' heads run from the nose over the eyes and drop to heels (height 2.5 m). Characters of the Gods: Each of these gods have different characters or domains what do these indicate about life in the Pacific and challenges that the islanders faced in life and death. Natural and abstract: Discuss how the human form is used and developed in these sculptures of the gods. Scale: Find the sculpture of Ku how does this reflect his character traits? Discuss the impact of large sculptures and how these indicate the power of the gods. Find the images of the sculpture in situ on the island try to imagine the effect of several of these sculptures alongside each other.
SECTION 5: TABOO: CONTROLLING DIVINE POWER The English word taboo means forbidden. The Polynesian tapu, from which taboo derives, has a more complex meaning, implying separated, marked or set apart. People, objects, places and activities in which the power of the gods was present were described as tapu. Anything that was tapu had to be kept separate from things that were noa, or free of godly power. Chiefs were highly tapu, because they were descended from the gods, and therefore inherited their dangerous power. Strong tapu restrictions surrounded the chiefs themselves, their body ornaments and even their bodily fluids. The gods power was also present in places of worship and during certain activities, which made the tasks tapu and subject to strict rituals. For example, carving and tattooing were tapu, because they imitated the cutting and separating work of the gods in creation. Failure to observe tapu restrictions could have dire consequences. Whale tooth and human hair necklace, Hawaiian Islands, (113 cm). This necklace is made from hundreds of strands of plaited human hair. As the head was the most tapu part of the body, this necklace is considered very powerful. SECTION 6: WRAPPING DANGER One of the ways in which Polynesians managed the gods power was by wrapping and binding powerful god images and people. Wooden staff god wrapped in barkcloth Cook Islands (3.9 m) Wrappings, of barkcloth, coconut fibre cord and feathers, contained, channelled and absorbed dangerous power. They became so much a part of the image and so filled with power, that ceremonies to renew them were highly sacred. In some places, the prayers offered during the wrapping and binding process were captured in the fibre itself, so that the wrapping became a physical representation of the prayer. To remove wrappings inappropriately was to desecrate the image. Tattooing by covering the body in images was another form of wrapping. It prevented power from being inappropriately transmitted in or out of a person. People could also be wrapped in large amounts of cloth on ceremonial occasions. Ancestral treasures: The highest chieftains were considered to be living descendants of the gods. Their genealogy was therefore very important and lineage was carved on staffs. Explore the various ways in which ancestors and lineage are recorded in these objects how do objects link you to ancestors? Wrapping: Find the different materials and techniques that were used to wrap objects and people. How does hiding or concealing something enhance its power?
SECTION 7: BIRDS, FEATHERS AND GODS Polynesians considered birds and feathers to be intimately connected with the gods. The bodies of several important gods were originally covered in red and yellow feathers. Throughout the Pacific, the colour red was particularly sacred. Feathers were used to wrap objects and people associated with the gods. In Hawaii, feathered images of gods were very important. Only the highest ranking chiefs could wear red and yellow feathered capes, cloaks and ornaments, which reflected their connection to the gods. Creating the capes was a carefully organised process. For one cape, around 90,000 birds were killed as each o o only had two or three yellow feathers. A production line was created with different groups providing the diverse skills trapping, plucking, bundling the feathers and so on. In combination with the introduction of hunting, deforestation and disease by the Europeans, the o o is now extinct. Nowadays, the killing of wild birds is not permitted for feather collection Feather cape from Hawaii, before 1850, Red feathers from the 'i'iwi bird, yellow and black feathers from the 'o'o bird. Bundles of feathers were attached in rows to a fibre netting. Kamehameha III, King of Hawaiian Islands 1825 1854, by Robert Dampier (Honolulu Academy of Arts) Nahienaena, sister of Kamehameha III, by Robert Dampier (Honolulu Academy of Arts) Power of colour: Only those of the highest social rank could wear feathers and cloaks. Look how the simple shapes of two colours and black create bold designs on these capes. Examine the texture and discuss the technique of creating such a dense fabric from feathers.
SECTION 8: BECOMING CHRISTIANS In 1797 Christian missionaries settled in Polynesia. By the 1830s conversion to Christianity was widespread. Islanders converted for many reasons. Some were compelled by their chiefs to convert. For others, Christianity was part of the new world brought to them by Europeans, which they embraced along with metal tools, firearms, cloth and books. Church going outfit fan and hat For some, the idea of a God beyond the physical world, offering unconditional love, freed them from the constant work of managing divine power. Sometimes people signalled their conversion by explicitly desecrating an important tapu restriction. Today, many Polynesians are committed Christians. Despite conversion, many aspects of Polynesian cosmology have been sustained through the last two centuries. In Hawai i and Aotearoa (New Zealand) especially, people are identifying more closely with the traditional rituals and practices that have been passed down to them. A a, wooden figure, Austral Islands (117 cm). In 1821 he was presented to the missionary John Williams by Austral Islanders as a sign of their conversion to Christianity. Quilt known as tivaevae, Cook Islands (275 cm). The wives of European missionaries brought new techniques such as embroidery and appliqué to Polynesia. These were eagerly adopted by islanders who used traditional patterns, such as this one, which depicts a breadfruit free leaf. Continuity and Change: The figure of A a was a symbol of giving up Christianity while the clothing worn to church shows strong continuities with pre-christian tradition. Find other examples of combining old and new traditions. Why is this important? Fans: How are these symbolic in the case of the Polynesians? Compare these fans with those earlier in the exhibition.
SECTION 9: A CONTINUING INFLUENCE The objects displayed in this exhibition continue to influence people, both in the eastern Pacific and in the rest of the world. Polynesians today are researching, visiting and responding to the British Museum s collection. Ongoing research is shedding new light on Polynesian cultures of the 18 th and 19 th centuries and helping to correct many long-standing European misunderstandings. The collection has also inspired many European writers and artists, including Picasso and Henry Moore. The concept of taboo, introduced into English via Captain Cook s journals, has acquired a different significance over the last 150 years. Taken up in early studies of comparative religion, it was later adopted by Freud and other psychoanalysts and came to refer more and more to what is dangerous and forbidden. The Polynesian meanings of tapu, relating to the presence of the power of the gods and to containing and wrapping this power, have been lost in translation. Hawaiian stool/figure, made from wood, human hair, human teeth and pearl shell (66 cm) Sketch of Hawaiian figure, Henry Moore. He wrote: This has been a favourite of mine since student days. I felt I had to sketch it. It has the tension and strain of a wrestler. Te Hono ki Ranana the Connection with London, by John Bevan Ford. Maori cloak floating over the British Museum Modern interpretations: Collect sketches of various Polynesian objects discuss ways you might incorporate these into new pieces of work to explore in depth their original significance, like Bevan Ford, Picasso and Moore have done.
THEMES These themes are suggested starting points for projects and your class could easily explore the exhibition with one or more of these themes in mind. TAPU AND TABOO: Tapu is a fascinating and complex concept. Ideas of tapu related to the presence of the power of the gods in objects, places and activities. This power needed to be carefully managed and contained and one of the ways this was achieved was through the wrapping of objects and people. Ideas of tapu also contributed to the way in which Polynesian societies were structured. As chiefs were descended from the gods and could therefore embody godly power, they were subject to strict tapu restrictions. Many of the objects and images in the exhibition facilitate understanding of this concept, for example in section 5, a Maori priest in a state of tapu is depicted being fed by a child. This is because the presence of an everyday substance, liked cooked food, had the potential to contaminate his tapu state. Alongside the image, a Maori feeding funnel is displayed, which allowed food to be eaten without being touched. In a discussion, it could be considered how this has developed into the idea of taboo and notions of acceptability and restriction. Western art often tests society by deliberately making taboo subjects or objects the focal point, to shock and challenge the audience. Placing this provocative topic at the centre of a unit of work in a multicultural context can foster a sense of cultural awareness amongst students. RELATIONSHIP WITH ENVIRONMENTS Travel, life on the sea and movement were fundamental to life in the islands and are just some examples of how the Pacific islanders interacted then and now with their environment. Natural materials provided the means of negotiating the geography, such as canoes and paddles. Pacific islanders navigation tools used stick charts bound with string to trace the stars and the waves as natural mapping techniques. All of the objects in the exhibition suggest the natural environment of the islands and have used materials from nature in innovative ways. The use of tapu materials, such as human hair and teeth, has symbolic and ritual significance. Think about the impact that this has on the palette of colours of the objects. Consider how Western artists have represented nature and their environment. REPRESENTING AND ADORNING THE FIGURE. Depictions of the human figure: Compare and contrast the different images of the human figure in Polynesia. Some are not realistic but are clearly representative of the figure in very expressive ways. Compare the images of gods to those of humans. Identify how proportions of the figure have been exaggerated and what effect this has on the overall image. How far can you distort the image while making it still recognisable? Body Art: In Polynesia, tattooing and body art have important symbolic meanings. Research the uses of body art, tattooing, scarification and make up across various cultures. Compare and contrast the varied purposes whether it is an assertion of identity or individuality or representing membership of a group of clan. Are these forms associated with conventional ideas of beauty? Experiment with washable paint and photograph different examples. Adornment: Many kinds of bodily adornment are displayed in the exhibition, such as the cloaks, capes, jewellery and helmets. Examine the variety of materials, pattern and symbols that are used. Maori artist George Nuku. He will be demonstrating his art from 30 October 4 November, 11.00 13.00 and 14.00 16.00 in the Great Court. Photo: Kerry Brown
FURTHER ACTIVITIES AND PROJECT IDEAS CREATION: Find out more about the Maori explanation of creation. Compare this with other beliefs about creation what are the common features between them, how to they differ? What are they all trying to explain? CONCEALED AND REVEALED: Wrapping objects was a practice intended to contain and control power. Following the theme of Concealed and Revealed, find or create an object symbolic of power and importance. Use various materials, fibres and textiles to wrap it, deciding how much to conceal or reveal. Other artists have used this technique, although its meaning is quite different from the Polynesian example. For example, Christo and Jeanne-Claude are artists who have wrapped famous buildings, such as the Reichstag government building in Germany. FEATHERS: Several societies place symbolic value on birds and feathers. There are examples of this in Native North American culture and South America, the Aztecs in particular, which in both cases adopt different meanings and techniques starting the same material. Design a piece of clothing or body decoration by finding innovative methods to incorporate feathers. Experiment with using many of them to create a smooth surface or individual feathers to stand out. Research the symbolic association with birds across cultures. FUSING OLD AND NEW: Maori contemporary culture uses many traditional techniques and symbols. Examine the work of John Bevan Ford and the textile piece to see examples. Select and research a symbol, object, motif or technique from the objects in the exhibition and incorporate it into a new piece of work, reflecting its original use and your interpretation of it. MATERIALS: Most of the objects in the exhibition use organic materials (feathers, fibres, cloths, rags, wooden beads, stones, shells, bark, leaves). Experiment with different organic materials and found objects to create adornment for the body. There are examples in the exhibition where barkcloth has been printed this can be replicated using wood, potatoes or leaves as printing blocks. FURTHER EXPLORATION IN THE MUSEUM Living and Dying Gallery (Room 24) This Gallery contains the magnificent Easter Island statue as well as other highlights from the Museum s ethnographic collections. The Enlightenment Gallery (Room 1) This themed Gallery contextualises objects from the Pacific in the era of Western exploration and discovery. FURTHER EXPLORATION AT SCHOOL Films Whale Rider, Samoan Wedding and Mutiny on the Bounty are all suitable for school pupils. The first two are films made in New Zealand, while the last is a western view of exploration in the Pacific Islands. Weblinks For further art and design activities related to the rest of the museum s collection please go to www.thebritishmuseum.ac.uk/education/artdesign/home.html Books Many objects displayed in this exhibition are illustrated in Pacific Encounters: Art and Divinity in Polynesia 1760 1860 by Dr Steven Hooper and published by the British Museum Press.