Trade Goods & Souvenirs Islamic Art from the Rijksmuseum Amsterdam 21 april t/m 4 september 2011
TRADE GOODS & SOUVENIRS For the past few years, Islamic art has been a hot topic. Dazzling new museums of Islamic art are springing up from Doha, Qatar, to Toronto, Canada, and well-known Western institutions like the Louvre and the Metropolitan Museum are renovating and expanding their Islamic art departments. In the Netherlands, there is no museum with a separate Islamic art department. Examples of art forms from the Islamic world are spread among a wide range of museums, which present them to the public in their permanent displays, just a few objects at a time. There has been a great deal of recent debate in the Netherlands about whether the country needs a central location with a focus on Islamic art and culture. And if so, what kind of place should it be: an independent museum, a separate pavilion or wing, or simply part of a permanent display that also includes other types of art? In response to this debate, the Rijksmuseum in Amsterdam is now exhibiting its collection of Islamic art. This area has never been a priority in the museum s collection policy, and many pieces of Islamic art ended up in the collection more or less by chance, as trade goods or souvenirs. They often reflect the historical ties between the Netherlands and the Islamic world. The Rijksmuseum collection does not offer a comprehensive survey of Islamic art and culture. For instance, Islamic calligraphy and sciences are barely represented. But the Rijksmuseum does have several exceptional specialized collections and a few unique works. This exhibition combines the collection of Islamic art from the Rijksmuseum in Amsterdam with pre-islamic objects from the holdings of the National Museum of Antiquities in Leiden.
What is Islamic art? The term Islamic art, widely used in art history, is in fact extremely problematic. It seems to suggest that this art is always religious in nature, yet many types of objects labelled as Islamic art are distinctly secular in character. Ceramics are a good example. We often do not even know for certain whether these objects were made and used by Muslims or by Christians, Jews, or other minorities. In practice, the term Islamic art often has a regional and cultural meaning, referring to art from countries that once belonged to the great Islamic empires extending roughly from Moorish Spain and Morocco to India and China. Despite the great internal diversity of this vast territory, there was also a degree of cultural unity, especially at the level of the courts and urban elites. This unity derived in large part from Islam, as the dominant religion, and Arabic, as the common language of religious life. As soon as a new formal idiom emerged in sacred art, it was adopted in secular art as well. Individuals, ideas, and artistic movements spread from one cultural centre to another with astonishing speed and ease, subsequently expanding into popular art forms. We have chosen to use the term Islamic art in this exhibition, because it was the category used by the Rijksmuseum in the 19th and 20th centuries, when it collected many of the objects in question.
Oriental carpets (1-10) Oriental carpets are one of the best-known art forms from the Islamic world. They were produced and traded in enormous quantities, and show a variety of techniques, patterns, and breathtaking colour combinations. Their popularity extended well beyond the Islamic world. In the 14th century, Italian merchants began importing carpets to the West. For their European owners, they were pure status symbols, too expensive to lay on the floor. Instead, they were draped over tables so that they would remain in good condition. The best-preserved carpets still come from old European collections. The Dutch became involved in the lucrative carpet trade in the 17th century. Carpets were shipped to the Netherlands from port cities in the Levant and the offices of the Dutch East India Company in Persia, as we can see in paintings by Dutch masters of the Golden Age. After going out of fashion in the 18th century, Oriental carpets made a spectacular comeback around 1900. But this time they provided inspiration for forward-looking Western artists. The finest carpets in the Rijksmuseum collection were acquired in this period.
This carpet has a counterpart at 1 the Österreichisches Museum für angewandte Kunst in Vienna. The two carpets both come from the collection of the Royal House of Habsburg and were probably sent to Europe shortly after they were made, in the 17th century. This impressive creation is decorated with rows of bouquets in vases. Its original colour was green, but exposure to light has turned it blue, making it look very different. Vase carpet; wool, cotton; Iran (Isfahan); 17th century Jan Baptist Weenix; The Dutch embassy to Isfahan in 1651-52, led by Johannes Cunaeus; oil on canvas; c. 1658-59 2. Letter case belonging to Michiel de Ruyter; leather, linen, velvet, silver thread, North Africa, c. 1650 3. Letter case belonging to Pieter de Leeuw; leather, silk, wool, silver and gold thread, parchment, paper; Istanbul; 1767 4. Letter case belonging to Thomas Hees; leather, velvet, silk, gold thread; North Africa; 1676 (On loan from the Royal Picture Gallery Mauritshuis) 5. Letter case belonging to François Louis van der Wielen; leather, velvet, silk, linen, and silver and gold thread; Istanbul; 1696 Polish carpet ; silk, silver, and gold thread; cotton; Iran (Isfahan); first half of the 17th century This Oriental carpet design is known 2 as the star Ushak or star medallion. The composition of stars on axes on a red ground is characteristic of Anatolian carpets, which have a relatively popular style with more angular patterns and fewer arabesques (stylized vine motifs). Star Ushak ; wool; western Turkey; 17th century This carpet is a very special reminder 5 of the ties between the Islamic world and Europe. The four corners are decorated with men in ships, probably the Portuguese traders who did business in Iran, India, and the Far East as early as the 16th century. That explains why these are known as Portuguese carpets, even though they were made in southern Iran or northern India. Portuguese carpet ; wool; southern Iran or northern India; early 17th century Thomas Hees negotiated with North 8 African privateers on behalf of the Dutch Republic for the release of Christian slaves. For this painting, he surrounded himself with exotic souvenirs. The floor and the table are covered with beautiful carpets. We also see an atlas on the table, open to a map of North Africa, and a letter case. The original letter case can be found in the display case next to this portrait. The weapons on the wall include two swords that resemble Michiel de Ruyter s Algerian swords, on display elsewhere in this exhibition. Michiel van Musscher; Thomas Hees, resident and commissioner of the States General to the governments in Algiers, Tunis, and Tripolis, with his nephews Jan and Andries Hees and a servant; oil on canvas; 1687 (On loan from the Royal Picture Gallery Mauritshuis) These precious silk carpets with 10 gold and silver thread were made in the imperial workshops of Isfahan and presented to European rulers as luxurious diplomatic gifts. In 1602, King Sigismund III Vasa of Poland ordered a set of such carpets for his daughter s marriage, decorated with the Polish coat of arms. In 1878 there were carpets like this on show at the World s Fair in Paris, where they became known to a wider public under the name of Polish carpets. Polish carpet ; silk, silver, and gold thread; cotton; Iran (Isfahan); early 17th century As early as 1292, Marco Polo sang 3 the praises of Konya carpets. In the following centuries, the city remained a major centre of carpet production, renowned for the high quality of its wool. This floral carpet with a central medallion and long, thin, curling leaves shows Persian influences. Carpet; wool, cotton; Turkey (Konya); early 17th century In the foreground we see a carpetweaving operation, where each stage 6 of carpet-making is clearly identifiable. Men are shearing sheep; wool is being dyed; people are working at a loom; and others are showing off the finished product to customers. In the background is the city of Ankara. A caravan is passing by. This painting comes from the Board of Levant Trade. Before that, it was probably in the possession of a Dutch merchant who traded in carpets. Anonymous artist (Armenian?); View of Ankara; oil on canvas; 18th century Letter or document cases 7 Many Dutch diplomats and merchants had embroidered pouches made for them in the Islamic world for use as letter or document cases. Such cases are highly personal items, which often state the name of the owner, the place where they were made, and a date. These particular letter cases were made in Turkey, with the exception of the ones belonging to Michiel de Ruyter and Thomas Hees, which come from North Africa. Hees s letter case is also shown in the portrait next to this display case. 1. Letter case belonging to Jean Abraham Grill; leather, silk, and silver and gold thread; Istanbul; 1754 (Gift of Kunsthandel J.J. Boas Berg) The Dutch East India Company had 4 a number of offices in Iran, and much of the Dutch-Iranian trade was in valuable textiles and carpets. This painting shows the arrival of an embassy (trade mission) from the Dutch East India Company in Bandar Abbas, an Iranian port city on the Persian Gulf. Its leader, Johan Cunaeus, had to try to negotiate favourable conditions for trade. In this painting Cunaeus is wearing a costly gold-coloured cape, probably a gift from the Shah (Persian king). This so-called Polish carpet is smaller 9 than the other one in this exhibition. These smaller carpets were often made in pairs. The characteristic features of such carpets include the thin stripes dividing the central field into cartouches and the decorative patterns based on vines, in which foliage motifs, lotus blossoms, and rosettes alternate with cloud-bands. This may be one of the carpets that King Sigismund III Vasa of Poland ordered from Isfahan in 1602.
In the 17th century, Dutch merchants set up trading posts in Iran and the Levant. The Dutch East India Company opened factories (trading stations) in 1623, in Bandar Abbas on the Persian Gulf and in Isfahan, then capital of Iran. The Dutch were mainly interested in raw and processed silk, though they were also regular buyers of carpets. Dutch trade with the Levant was concentrated in Istanbul and Izmir (Smyrna). A number of European trading stations were located in Izmir, and the city was home to a Dutch trading colony with its own consul. The Dutch imported Angora wool and cotton, and as in Iran, they also traded in Oriental carpets. Antoine de Favray; David George van Lennep, chief merchant of the Dutch factory in Smyrna, with his wife and children; oil on canvas; c. 1770 (Collection of the Rijksmuseum Amsterdam) Unfortunately the original painting was too vulnerable to travel. David George van Lennep came to Izmir in 1738. He married Anna Maria Leidstar, the daughter of a well-known Dutch merchant family in the Levant. Around 1770, the Van Lenneps had their portrait painted by the French artist Antoine de Favray. They are dressed in a partly Western and partly Ottoman style. Under their feet, we see an Oriental carpet. To the left is Van Lennep s father-in-law Justinus Leidstar, who had an office in Ankara where he traded in Angora wool. Leidstar may have commissioned the View of Ankara on display in this exhibition. In the 19th century, several members of the Van Lennep family served as Dutch Consul in Izmir. They also dealt in antiquities, buying valuable antique jewellery, terracottas, and sculptures and exporting them to the Netherlands by steamship.
Weapons (11-16) Weapons from the Islamic world were greatly admired and of superior workmanship. Terms such as damascening (hightemperature etching of sabres, literally in the Damascus style ) remind us of this fact. Close attention also went into decoration; many weapons were true works of art. From a very early stage, these weapons were appreciated and collected in Europe. They came to the West as souvenirs, diplomatic gifts, or spoils of war. In the 17th and 18th centuries, Dutch merchant vessels in the Mediterranean came under threat from North African privateers. Michiel de Ruyter and Cornelis Tromp were sent off to lead the fight against these Barbary pirates, as they were called, but also to negotiate with them. During these expeditions, they came into possession of the weapons on display here. In the 19th century, traditional weapons from Islamic countries were coveted as souvenirs and collectors items. Oriental artisans made the most of this opportunity, producing weapons in traditional styles specifically for the tourist trade. Pre-islamic weapons 11 dutch interest in weapons from the Middle East was not confined to the Islamic period, but certainly extended to the ancient Near East. In the 1920s, magnificent bronze daggers and shields appeared on the European art market. The weapons are of superb quality and most derive from the pre-islamic graves of a mysterious warrior nation. The frieze on the bronze decorative plate [3] shows a lively story in pictures, with scenes of hunting and the court. Within Islamic art, the lion continued to symbolize nobility and strength, although lions were virtually extinct in this region by then. 1. Bronze dagger; Iran; c. 3000-2000 BC 2. Bronze dagger or sword; Iran; c. 1250-600 BC 3. Bronze decorative plate; Iran; 10th-9th century BC 4. Bronze helmet; Iran; 7th century BC This lower arm piece was once part 12 of a complete suit of armour. It is beautifully decorated with engraved images of horsemen, animals and cartouches with kufic (angular) script, and partly inlaid with gold. In view of the decorations, the suit of armour was unlikely to have been intended for use in the battlefield. It probably had a ceremonial function. Piece of suit of armour covering the lower arm; steel, gold inlays, textile, leather; Iran; 18th-19th century The decorations on this helmet and 13 this shield are a curious mishmash. The central medallion on the shield enclosing the seated figure of a king strongly recalls Old Iranian, pre-islamic art from Persepolis, for instance. The images surrounding it, depicting musicians and hunting scenes, are executed in a far later style, 17th-century Safavidic. Finally, other medallions with pseudo-script have been added. All the evidence suggests that this shield was made especially for a Western tourist or collector. Helmet and shield; steel, bronze, silver and gold inlays, textile; Iran; 1850-1900 The constant skirmishes with the 14 Barbary States did not, in the end, impede the Netherlands weapons trade with North Africa. This rifle is a magnificent example of a compound weapon. The barrel bears Amsterdam s coat of arms, while the lock displays an Arabic inscription recording that it was made in the year 1755/56 by Muhammad, son of Muhammad. The butt, which is inlaid with silver and coral, was made in Europe, but its crowning silver band is the product of Moroccan craftsmanship. Moroccan rifle with Amsterdam barrel and butt; iron, wood, cow s horn, brass, coral, silver; Morocco and Amsterdam; 1750-1775 (Purchased with the support of the Prince Bernard Cultural Fund, the Ministry of Education, Culture and Science, the Ministry of Defence, the VSB Fund, the SponsorBingo Loterij and the Rijksmuseum Fund) Weapons owned by 15 Michiel de Ruyter Between 1655 and 1664, Michiel de Ruyter conducted punitive expeditions against the Barbary States of Algiers, Tunis, and Tripoli. De Ruyter probably acquired these two Algerian sabres, or nimchas, in the course of these expeditions. Legend has it that he took the nimcha with the red velvet sheath from an Algerian corsair in 1655. He is said to have seized the other one in 1657, from the French privateer De La Lande, who had in turn seized it from Islamic corsairs. 1. Nimcha; iron, silver, tortoiseshell, brass, mother-of-pearl, enamel, wood, velvet, leather; Algeria; c. 1650 2. Nimcha, possibly seized from the French privateer De La Lande; iron, silver, tortoiseshell, brass, mother-of-pearl, enamel, wood, velvet, cloth, leather; Algeria; c. 1650
Weapons owned by 16 Cornelis Tromp In his years as admiral, Cornelis Tromp built up a remarkable collection of weaponry. His campaigns also took him to the Mediterranean and the Barbary States (North Africa). It is often impossible to ascertain whether he received the weapons in his collection as gifts or seized them as part of the spoils of war. 1. Nimcha; iron, silver, horn, brass, leather; Algeria; c. 1650 2. Persian horseman s sabre, shamshir type; iron, silver, walrus ivory, copper; Iran; 16th or early 17th century 3. Yatagan; iron, silver, velvet; Balkan or the European part of Turkey; 1600-1700 4. Persian dagger; iron, ivory, wood, silver, silk; Iran; 1600-1700 Ornament: an art form in its own right (17-34) A passion for ornamentation runs deep in Islamic cultures. Apart from calligraphy, one of the highest Islamic art forms, ornament is usually divided into three categories: abstract geometric patterns, floral and vegetative motifs, and figurative decorations. These three forms are often combined, and there is a strong tendency to fill the available space. Geometric patterns range from the simple to the highly intricate. Artists came up with ingenious mathematical patterns composed of basic forms such as the triangle, square, and hexagon. These geometrical star motifs, interconnected through infinity, are a symbol of divine harmony. Islamic artisans also drew inspiration from nature. Besides trees and plants, their work is full of animals and people. Only in religious contexts were artists reluctant to depict beings with souls, and even that restriction depended on the period and region. One quintessential Islamic motif is the arabesque, a stylized leafy vine, often forming a repeated pattern. In a religious context, floral decorations evoke associations with paradise. Ornamentation covers many varieties of art and is also characteristic of Islamic architecture. Usually independent of the form of the object or building, Islamic ornament has developed into an art form in its own right.
These tile panels come from the 17 Tunisian pavilion at the International Exhibition of 1883 in Amsterdam. Made in Qallaline, the potters quarter in Tunis, they exemplify two major ornamental styles of the Islamic world: abstract geometric patterns and floral or vegetative decoration. The geometric panel shows influences from Moorish Spain, while the tile picture of a vase of flowers combines Ottoman and Southern European traditions. The Arabic inscription on the top reads, Made in Qallaline, Tunis, for the Amsterdam World s Fair of 1883. Two tile panels for the World s Fair in Amsterdam; earthenware, tin glaze; Tunisia; 1883 Geometric patterns have been used 18 throughout the Islamic cultural area. The best known are those from Moorish Spain, such as the colourful mosaics of the Alhambra in Granada. The tradition survived in Spain after the country s Islamic rulers were driven out, in what is known as the Mudéjar style, of which this panel is a good example. It was probably made in the 15th century in the Christian city of Toledo, but the stylized fig-leaf motif (later called the cock s-foot motif) comes from the Islamic tradition. In an early restoration the placement of the tiles was incorrect; the pattern is now more continuous. Tile panel with geometric pattern; earthenware (cuerda seca), Spain (Toledo?); 15th century (Purchased with the support of the Rembrandt Society) of buildings such as palaces and mosques, as parts of larger geometric patterns. The individual tiles are decorated with inscriptions, floral motifs, and figures of people and animals. These tiles were made in Iran during the Mongol Ilkhanid Dynasty (1256-1353), when Iranian art was exposed to strong Chinese influences. This is visible, for instance, in the star tile with lotus blossoms in gold against a blue background or in the motif of the mythical Phoenix on a lustre tile. Star and cross tiles; quartz fritware; Iran; 1250-1325 (Purchased with the support of the Rembrandt Society; Loan from the Association of Friends of Asian Art; Gift/bequest of Mr and Mrs Oosterbaan-Lugt, Heemstede) Architectural element with rosette 21 decoration; basalt; Palestine; c. 63 BC AD 640. is filled in with elegant blue and white arabesques. Textile fragment; silk fabric; Spain or North Africa; 15th century These two Iranian textile fragments 26 display the same geometric motif with cartouches and Arabic script, but they were executed in different colour schemes. The octagonal stars on the fabrics are the same shape as the well-known star tiles from Iran. These fragments may have been part of a coffin pall. Several fragments of these fabrics have been preserved. Some are signed and dated: work by Ali Reza, 1176 (=AD 1762) Two textile fragments; silk fabric; Iran; 1762 This fragment comes from a larger one 27 that was divided into bands with floral motifs, stylised arabesques, geometric patterns, and Arabic calligraphy. The inscription, of which only the bottoms of the letters are visible here, probably reads: Praise to our lord the Sultan. Textile fragment, silk fabric; Granada (Spain); 14th-15th century Persian) cultures. In the past, it has been described as a fabric from Central Asia or the Byzantine Empire. Nowadays, however, expert opinion inclines to place its origins in Spain. Textile fragment with winged lion; silk fabric; Spain (?); 8th-12th century Repeating pattern of twelve-lobed 30 medallions with fire-breathing dragons against a red ground with a small cloud motif. The Chinese influence (dragon figures and cloud motif) is extremely obvious. In the 13th century, the Mongolian Empire extended from China to the Mediterranean Sea. As a result of the Pax Mongolia, trade flourished along the Silk Route, greatly increasing the Chinese influence on the Islamic arts in this period. Textile fragment with coiled dragons; silk fabric with gold thread; Central Asia; 13th century This tile panel clearly shows how star 19 and cross tiles can combine to form a larger geometric pattern. Tile panel with star and cross titles; quartz fritware, turquoise, and cobalt-blue alkaline glaze; Iran; 1250-1325 (Gift/bequest of Mr and Mrs Oosterbaan-Lugt, Heemstede) 20 These star and cross tiles once decorated the interiors and exteriors 22 Pilaster capital with acanthus motif; marble; Greece; c. 2nd century AD Textile with 23 geometrical patterns abstract geometrical patterns were not only used to decorate architecture, in the form of mosaics or tile tableaux. They were also very popular for textiles, for instance. Indeed, the geometrical decorations applied to fabrics and to architecture sometimes seem interchangeable. Fabrics with star-shaped polygons 24 and lively colours are characteristic of the style in Granada. Textile fragment; silk fabric; Spain (Granada); 14th-15th century Fabrics of this kind, with yellow 25 geometric patterns on a red ground, may have been used as curtains and as hangings in the interiors of sumptuous palaces. Geometric motifs are also very common in architectural decorations. The red ground in between the latticework Textile with floral and 28 figurative decorations The use of floral and figurative decorations was extremely popular in Islamic textiles. Sometimes the plants and animals were depicted with great naturalism, while in other cases they were rendered in a more stylized manner. They were frequently part of a larger, repeating pattern, but sometimes they occurred as independent motifs. In Safavid Iran (1501-1736), for instance, we find fabrics illustrated with scenes from Persian literature. This fragment with a winged lion in 29 an arcade is very difficult to date and equally hard to attribute to a specific region. It does show the clear influence of pre-islamic civilizations, such as the classical, Byzantine, and Sassanid (Old- Many silk fabrics with figurative 31 scenes are known from the reign of Shah Abbas the Great (1586-1628). On this fragment we see a scene from Layla and Majnun, the famous love story by the Persian poet Nizami. Sick from disappointed love, Majnun has sought seclusion in the wilderness. At the top we see two images of the lower part of a seated figure, Majnun, with an animal under his arm. At the bottom we can just make out the top of the canopy of Layla s palanquin. More easily recognizable are the diverse animals that populate the wilderness. Textile fragment with a scene from Nizami s Layla and Majnun; silk fabric with gold thread; Iran (Yazd); c. 1600 Fabrics of this kind, with pairs of 32 animals or fabulous creatures, were extremely popular in the Islamic cultural region in the 13th and 14th centuries. Indeed, their popularity spread beyond this region, as we see in the fabrics from
Lucca elsewhere in this exhibition. Here we see pairs of hares in medallions, between which are elegant trails with stylized foliage. Fabrics of this kind were used for garments. On the basis of technical analysis, this fragment has been attributed to a workshop in Iran. Textile fragment with pairs of hares; silk fabric with gold thread; Iran; 14th century Coptic fabrics 33 When they seized Egypt in the 7th century, the Islamic Arabs found a flourishing textile industry there, which dated back to the age of the Pharaohs. In addition to linen tunics, curtain material, cushion covers and other fabrics were made there. The materials clearly display their ancient influence, with fabulous creatures, mythological figures, and gods. From the 8th century onwards, under the influence of Islamic art, the motifs became more abstract. This abstraction is clearly recognizable in the fabrics made by Egyptian Christians, known as Copts. One of these fabrics displays floral patterns that are still recognisable [1], while a later example exhibits only geometric and symmetrical motifs [3]. 1. Coptic fabric with foliage motifs and pomegranates; linen; Egypt; 4th-5th century AD 2. Coptic tunic with stylized vases and floral motifs; linen; Egypt; 6th-8th century AD 3. Coptic fabric with rosette motifs; linen and silk; Egypt; 10th-13th century AD 4. Coptic fabric with tabula; linen and wool; Egypt; 8th-9th century AD 5. Coptic fabric with orbis; wool; Egypt; 8th-9th century AD common in earlier periods. Both realistic images of pomegranate trees [2], vines and acanthus leaves [3-5], and beautiful geometric shapes of flowers are found from early times [1]. In the Byzantine and Islamic eras, these scenes became more and more abstract. This trend gave rise to the arabesque, for instance, a regular tendril motif. 1. Bronze brooch with rosette decorations; Iran; 9th century BC 2. Relief with the image of a pomegranate tree; Iraq; 7th century BC (on loan from the Netherlands Institute for the Near East, NINO) 3. Pottery amphora decorated with bunches of grapes and meanders; Italy; c. 520 BC 4. Pottery oil lamp decorated with bunches of grapes; Israel; c. 63 BC-640 AD 5. Pottery oil lamp decorated with an early arabesque; Israel; c. 63 BC-640 AD Artistic interchange (35-46) Beginning in the 11th century, the Christian and Islamic worlds along the shores of the Mediterranean gradually forged new trade relations. The political situation in the West became more stable, and the economy recovered. This increased the demand for luxury items. The source of luxury goods was the Islamic world, where the arts and crafts were much more advanced than in the West. Cities such as Barcelona, Pisa, Genoa, and Venice sent entire fleets to trade in Tunis, Alexandria, Damascus, and Aleppo. These commercial contacts led to artistic exchanges. Italian and Spanish artisans borrowed techniques, forms, and decorative motifs from Islamic art, copying them slavishly at first, but later adapting them much more freely. The strongest artistic influence was felt in border zones like Sicily and Spain. From the early 9th to the late 11th century, Sicily was under Muslim rule, and the last Moorish city in Spain, Granada, did not fall until 1492. Another major centre of artistic interchange was Venice, which had very strong commercial ties to the Islamic world. Vine, acanthus leaf 34 and arabesque Images of gardens, trees and plants always possessed special significance within Islamic art, as they celebrated the beauty of both the earthly creation and the heavenly paradise. Floral themes were also very
This basin is an outstanding example of 35 artistic interchange between East and West. It was made in Cairo or Damascus for Elizabeth of Carinthia, queen-consort of Sicily. The form of the basin, the Arabic inscription, and the decorations on the inside are in keeping with Islamic tradition. Elizabeth s coat of arms and the Latin inscription on the outside (Saint Agatha s epitaph) are Western. The intention was for the basin to be inlaid with precious metals such as silver and gold. We do not know why this never actually took place. Basin made for Elizabeth of Carinthia; copper; Egypt or Syria; 1323-1350 (on loan from the Viking Information Centre, Den Oever) Islamic patterns remained in use on 41 Italian ceramics until the 16th century. This pattern of Turkish knots was probably based on ornament prints after Leonardo da Vinci or Albrecht Dürer, which had been inspired in turn by the geometric decorations on Islamic metalwork. Plate with geometric pattern of lines; majolica; Italy (Siena); c. 1525 Textile fragment with palmette motif, 44 paired eagles, and winged dragons with dogs heads and curling tails. Details such as heads, paws, and wings were added in gold thread. The design of this textile shows some resemblance to earlier Persian and Byzantine silks but is also reminiscent of 12th-century Spanish textiles decorated with eagles. Textile fragment with eagles and dragons; silk with gold thread; Italy (Lucca) or Spain; 13th century Mediaeval interest 36 in the middle east Excavations have shown that ties between the Netherlands and the eastern Mediterranean region were maintained after Roman times. Byzantine coins, in particular, continued to make their way to the Low Countries, with luxury objects such as bronze dishes following in their wake [1-2]. The important trading settlement of Dorestad, near present-day Wijk bij Duurstede, also testifies to the relations with the Middle East in the 8th and 9th centuries [4]. In the same era, Arab dirhams are characteristic of the Vikings trading capital, as is clear from one of the Viking treasures that were found in North Holland [7]. 1. Byzantine jug; bronze; Wijchen; 7th century AD 2. Byzantine dish; bronze; Millingen; 7th century AD 3. Fatimid pendant; gold; Maastricht (?); c. 1000 AD 4. Byzantine beads from Dorestad; glass; Wijk bij Duurstede; 8th-9th century AD 5. Byzantine coin from Rhenen; silver; Justinian; 555-565 AD 6. Byzantine coin from Rhenen; gold; Anastasius; 491-518 AD 7. Arab dirhams from the Viking treasure found at Westerklief II; silver; Wieringen; c. 880 AD This hunting horn is a typical product 37 of the hybrid cultures of southern Italy and Sicily in the 11th and 12th centuries, when a unique interaction took place between Islamic and Christian traditions. It is one of the treasures of the Mariakerk in Utrecht. Many works of Islamic art were once part of medieval church treasures. Hunting horn; ivory; Sicily or southern Italy; 11th-12th century This glass is part of a famous group 38 of fourteen almost identical beakers, known as Hedwig glasses after Saint Hedwig (1174-1243), who is said to have owned vessels of this kind. Their origins are uncertain. Some specialists argue that they were crafted in the Middle East or Byzantium, while others suspect that they come from Sicily. The court workshops of Palermo, a city said to have once had 500 mosques, worked in both Western and Islamic styles. Hedwig glass; relief-cut glass; Sicily, Middle East, or Byzantium; 900-1200 This bronze shaft, inlaid with silver, was 39 probably part of a candlestick. The Arabic inscription is in cursive naskh script, with human faces engraved into the ends of some letters. Fragment of a candlestick; bronze with silver inlay; Iran (Khorasan); late 12th-13th century This candlestick was made by a Syrian 40 craftsman. Because it was intended for the Italian market, it was adapted to Western tastes. For instance, it is much smaller than candlesticks in the Islamic world. The harpy and griffin decorations are also meant to appeal to Western tastes. And finally, the future owner could have his own coat of arms engraved into the empty shield. Candlestick; copper; remnants of silver inlay; Syria; late 14th-15th century Syria and Egypt had a tradition of 42 colourless glass beautifully decorated with enamel. Around 1300, the Venetians became the first in Europe to discover the secret of Islamic glass, with the help of glassmakers who had fled the Mongol invasion. The Venetian glass industry developed at lightning speed. As early as the 15th and 16th centuries, Venice was no longer an importer but a major exporter of glass to the Islamic world. This bottle is a fine example of Venetian craftsmanship, with enamel work that still clearly shows the influence of Islamic glass. Pilgrim bottle; glass with enamel and gilt; Italy (Venice); c. 1600-1625 Textile fragments between 43 East and West Islamic fabrics were highly prized in Europe. They could be used to wrap Christian relics or in ecclesiastical and royal garments. Islamic techniques and motifs were swiftly adopted by Western artisans. At first, this influence was strongest in border areas such as Spain and Sicily. But in the 12th century other parts of Italy, such as Lucca, began producing luxurious textiles based on Islamic examples. New patterns spread at an astonishing speed. During the 13th, 14th, and 15th centuries, the countries on the Mediterranean rim had a true international style. This often makes it difficult to tell whether fabric from the period was made in Spain, Italy, Byzantium, or the Middle East. Textile fragment with paired birds 45 and quadrupeds among palmette motifs with leafy vines. Details such as heads, paws, and wings are woven into the fabric in gold thread. The textile was once a deep rose colour. In combination with the gold thread, this must have created an impression of extreme luxury. The style of the fabric is closely related to that of the greenish-yellow fabric in this display case. Textile fragment with birds and mythical beasts; silk with gold thread; Italy (Lucca); 14th century (Purchased with the support of the Rembrandt Society) Textile fragment with green palmette 46 motifs, with pairs of birds surrounded by small flowers and pomegranates in white and pink. This fabric is a good example of the international Mediterranean style. We now attribute it to a workshop in Lucca, but it has previously been identified as Arabian, Iranian, and Spanish. The design also shows strong Chinese influences for example, the cartouches and the Qilin, mythical Chinese creatures. These elements were introduced into Islamic art by the Mongol invasions of the 13th century. Textile fragment with paired birds; silk; Italy (Lucca); 14th-15th century (Gift of J.A. Blom, The Hague)
Ceramics and glass (47-57) Potters in the Islamic world produced stunning luxury items from the 9th century onward. Their work was in part a continuation of classical, Byzantine, and Sassanid traditions, but they were also open to outside influences, such as Chinese stoneware and porcelain. The most innovative aspects of Islamic pottery were its decorative styles and glazing techniques. The entire surface of a vessel or tile was usually filled with decoration, whether it was calligraphy, floral and figurative motifs, or more abstract patterns. Famous techniques include a uniform coat of white tin glaze, as well as lustre glazes, which give pottery a unique and splendid metallic gleam. Artisans in the Islamic world could also build on a long tradition of glass-making. The first glass-making process was invented in the Near East, and, in a later period, so was glassblowing. In the early Islamic period, craftspeople elaborated on decorative techniques from the Roman age: using glass filament as decoration, engraving and polishing of the surface of the glass, and working with moulds. In the 12th century, a new technique made its appearance in Egypt and Syria: enamel painting on colourless glass. Glassware of this kind was in great demand in Europe. In the 14th and 15th centuries, the enamelling technique was adopted by the Venetians. 47 CALLIGRAPHY In the Islamic world, calligraphy is regarded as the highest form of art, in part because the Koran was passed down from generation to generation in Arabic script. Calligraphy had not only a communicative function, but also an aesthetic one. The inscriptions on these early Iranian ceramic wares from the 10th century are in Arabic. Most of them are Koran passages, blessings, or proverbs. The repeated pattern on the colourful bowl [3] may contain the world Allah or al youmn ( good fortune ). Other bowls are decorated with pseudoinscriptions that have no literal meaning, but a purely symbolic, aesthetic value. 1. Bowl; earthenware with white and black slip under clear lead glaze; Iran (Nishapur); 10th century 2. Bowl; earthenware with white, black, reddish-brown, and olive-green slip under clear lead glaze; Iran (Nishapur or Gurgan); 10th century 3. Bowl; earthenware with white, black, and reddish-brown slip under clear lead glaze; Iran or Uzbekistan; 10th century 4. Bowl; earthenware with white, black, reddish-brown, and olive-green slip under transparent lead glaze; Iran (Nishapur); 10th century (Gift/bequest of Mr and Mrs Oosterbaan-Lugt, Heemstede) 48 LUSTRE Iranian potters decorated precious ceramic wares with lustre, a glaze that includes silver or copper oxide. Because the Koran advises against making objects from precious metals, lustre painting was a welcome alternative, which made it possible to simulate the look of gold and silver. Lustre decorations included figurative motifs and poetic inscriptions in Persian. This technique spread into Europe by way of Spain [5]. 1. Jug; quartz fritware with lustre on clear alkaline glaze; Iran (Kashan?); 1170-1200 2. Dish; quartz fritware with lustre on opaque white tin-lead-alkali glaze; Iran (Kashan?); 1170-1200 3. Bowl; quartz fritware with lustre on opaque white tin-lead-alkali glaze; Iran (Kashan?); 1200-1220 4. Star tile; quartz fritware, opaque white glaze, lustre, cobalt blue, turquoise; Iran (Kashan); 1266-1267 5. Plate; earthenware with tin glaze and lustre; Spain (Manises); 17th century (Gift/bequest of Mr and Mrs Oosterbaan-Lugt, Heemstede). 49 TURQUOISE The use of alkaline glaze, a new glaze with a lower firing temperature, made it possible to create delicate paintings that did not run. This laid the foundations for the development of the technique of applying an underglaze. The turquoise colour that is so characteristic of Iranian pottery was produced by adding copper oxide. 1. Jug; quartz fritware, alkaline glaze; Iran; late 12th-early 13th century 2. Jug; quartz fritware, alkaline glaze; Iran or Syria; 12th-13th century 3. Jar; quartz fritware, alkaline glaze; Iran; 12th-13th century 4. Bowl; quartz fritware, alkaline glaze; Iran (Gurgan?); 13th century 5. Bowl; quartz fritware, alkaline glaze; Iran (Kashan or Gurgan); 13th century 6. Bowl; quartz fritware, chrome-ironstone suspension, alkaline glaze; Iran; late 12th century (Gift/bequest of Mr and Mrs Oosterbaan-Lugt, Heemstede) ISLAMIC PORCELAIN 50 From the 12th century onwards, Iranian potters used a new material, quartz frit paste: white clay ground with quartz and glass. With this material, they made imitations of imported thin-walled white Chinese Song ceramics (960-1279). Just look at the thinness of the walls of this small white lobed bowl [3]. The lotus shape of this little bowl likewise points to a Chinese source. We also find Chinese lotus blossoms on the tile [1].
1. Star tile; quartz fritware, cobalt blue tinlead-alkaline glaze gold; Iran; 1250-1300 2. Bowl; quartz fritware, cobalt blue pigment under transparent alkaline glaze; Iran; 12th century 3. Bowl; quartz fritware, transparent alkaline glaze; Iran; 12th century 4. Bowl; quartz fritware, cobalt blue pigment under transparent alkaline glaze; Iran; late 12th-early 13th century 5. Bowl; quartz fritware, alkaline glaze; Iran (Gorgan); 12th century 6. Jug; quartz fritware, cobalt blue pigment under transparent alkaline glaze; Iran; 12th century (Gift/bequest of Mr and Mrs Oosterbaan-Lugt, Heemstede) Iranian flask and the Iranian jug from the 12th century [2, 3] already existed in the pre-islamic period. And the mould-blown flask dating from the 12th-13th century [1] has a honeycomb motif that is comparable to the faceted glass from the Sassanid period [display-case 64-1]. It is sometimes difficult to distinguish between pre-islamic and early Islamic glassware. 1. Mould-blown glass flask with honeycomb motif; Iran; 1100-1250 2. Mould-blown glass flask; Iran; 1100-1250 3. Glass jug with handle; Greater Iran; 11th century 4. Glass flask with handle; Greater Iran; 11th century (Gift/bequest of Mr and Mrs Oosterbaan-Lugt, Heemstede) used to decorate dishes from Iran [1, 2] and Syria [3], and the techniques used for the blown-glass Islamic sprinklers probably date from 1,000 years earlier, in the Eastern Mediterranean [4, 5]. 1. Glass bowl, free-blown and faceted; Iran; 7th century AD 2. Faceted glass dish; Iran; 5th century AD 3. Drinking cup with engraved grooves in pressed glass; Syria; 150-50 BC 4. Small glass flask; Palestine (?); 3th-4th century AD 5. Small glass flask; Syria; 3rd-4th century AD in Ancient Egypt and Iran. The composition of the material determined its colour, which ranged from milky white to azure blue. Glaze more than 3,000 years old has been found on bricks from Iran [1]. In the first millennium BC, glazing was also used for pottery and figurative art [2-5]. In the display case you see a Nubian head with a green glaze [3]. This is an unusual object, as it displays a very early use of lead glaze. This glaze was extremely popular among Islamic potters. 1. Brick with Elamite cuneiform script covered with yellow glaze; Iran; c. 1200-1100 BC 2. Pottery jug with glaze in the shape of a boy; Egypt; c. 300-50 BC 3. Jug in the shape of a Nubian head; pottery with green lead glaze; Egypt; c. 332-30 BC 4. Pottery jug with glaze; Iran (?); c. 250 BC-225 AD 5. Pottery jug with green glaze; Egypt; c. 332-30 BC GLASS THREADS 55 Very early glass dishes, made with the core-forming technique, derive from Egypt and are about 2,500 years old. This technique, in which the soft glass threads were wound around a core of clay, continued to be used at least until the 4th century BC. Dishes made with this procedure are usually identifiable from the brightly-coloured zigzag patterns that are produced when glass threads placed on the surface are pulled using an instrument resembling a pair of tweezers. The decorative use of glass threads remained popular in the Near East [5, 6], including in the Islamic period. 1. Perfume flask made from core glass; Egypt; c. 1400-1307 BC 2. Perfume flask made of core glass; Egypt; c. 1400-1225 BC 3. Perfume flask in Mycenaean style made of core glass; Egypt; c. 1400-1250 BC 4. Krater with base made of core glass; Egypt; c. 1400-1225 BC 5. Glass dish decorated with glass thread; Palestine; date unknown (c. 63 BC-640 AD) 6. Small glass flask decorated with glass thread; Lebanon; 5th century AD 51 IZNIK The late 15th century saw the start of ceramics production in Iznik, a city in northwest Turkey. This kind of pottery is decorated with tulips, carnations, hyacinths and roses. Another striking feature is the deep red colour, achieving which was a brilliant technical feat. The rim with wave motifs is inspired by Chinese porcelain. Iznik pottery was a source of inspiration for European ceramics workshops in countries such as Italy [4] and the Netherlands. 1. Two flasks; quartz fritware, quartz-slip, transparent lead-alkaline-tin glaze; Turkey (Iznik); 1600-1650 2. Plate; quartz fritware, quartz-slip, transparent lead-alkaline glaze; Turkey (Iznik); 1565-1585 3. Plate; quartz fritware, quartz-slip, transparent lead-alkaline glaze; Turkey (Iznik); 1570-1590 4. Plate; pottery, tin glaze; Italy; 1540-1560 (Gift/bequest of Mr and Mrs Oosterbaan-Lugt, Heemstede) 52 GLASS Islamic glass-blowers refined the techniques they had inherited from their predecessors, classical, Byzantine, and Sassanid craftsmen. The shapes of the PERSIAN GLASS 53 These bottles and small flasks were made in Iran in the 18th and 19th centuries. In themselves they are not particularly remarkable; similar items are found in a great many Western collections. They were real fashion items, immensely popular in 19th-century Europe. Some of them come from the estate of the painter Hugo Bakker Korff, while others were purchased at the Persian section of the 1883 Colonial and Export Trade Exhibition in Amsterdam. Glass bottles and flasks; Iran; 18th-19th century (Gift of J.F.W. van der Haagen, The Hague; on loan from the Dutch Society for Trade and Industry) ISLAMIC GLASS CRAFTSMEN IN 54 SEARCH OF THE PAST Glass plays an important role in the Islamic world, both in domestic contexts and in public spaces. It is used to give more colour and light to the interiors of Islamic buildings. From early Islamic times onwards a flourishing glass industry existed, most notably in Egypt and Syria. These glass craftsmen used older techniques. For instance, the engraved Hedwig glass in this exhibition is based on a technique that was FROM MILKY WHITE TO AZURE BLUE 56 Using glaze to finish and decorate objects was a technique honed to nearperfection in the Islamic era. Glazes had been used before, not just in China but also HANGING IN THE AIR OVER THE 57 EARTH Birds are seen in many cultures as symbols of freedom, as they soar over the earth. As bridges between our world and the heavens, they are a common motif in the ancient Middle East, in pre-islamic times as well as in Islamic art. Ancient graves in Syria contain images of eagles that are to take the deceased s soul to heaven, the ancient Egyptians built shafts through which the soul could fly away, and the Sumerians believed that the deceased lived on as birds in the underworld. In this display case you see small, painted bird figures [2, 3] and beak jugs made to resemble cranes [1]. 1. Three pottery beak jugs; Iran; 10th-9th century BC 2. Pottery jar with animal figures; Iran; 8th-7th century BC 3. Pottery dish with bird figure; Iran; 8th century BC
Miniatures (58-70) In the Islamic tradition, painting is almost never an independent art form. Most paintings took the form of book illustrations, which from an early stage were so popular that they were collected in special albums. The aversion to figurative representation was strongest in the religious domain. Korans, for instance, were very rarely illuminated with miniatures of people or animals. This restriction did not apply to secular manuscripts, such as historical texts and heroic poems, which are often filled with illustrations of people and animals. The arts of the book reached their first pinnacle at the Abbasid court workshops in Baghdad. In the 14th century, a number of miniature painting workshops were founded in Iran, producing courtly art: illustrations of the work of great Persian poets. A second major centre was Mughal India, which had close ties to Iran. In the late 16th century, the Mughal emperor Akbar established a workshop headed by several leading Iranian masters. The Mughal workshops developed a style all their own, which combined a variety of traditions, showing not only Indian and Iranian but also European influences. It was traders for the Dutch East India Company who brought the Indian miniatures to the West, where they were collected for cabinets of curiosities. In fact, Rembrandt made a series of drawings after Indian miniatures. This miniature comes from a 58 manuscript of the Khamseh of Nizami, a collection of tales about Persian heroes like the sculptor Farhad, endowed with superhuman strength. Here Farhad is carrying his beloved Princess Shirin and her horse, because they are too exhausted to go any further. To the left we see a canal that Farhad dug to carry goats milk from mountain pastures to her palace. Farhad carrying Shirin and her horse; gouache, ink, and gold on paper; Iran; early 16th century (On loan from the Association of Friends of Asian Art) Here Prince Khosrow is riding along 59 and sees his future bride Shirin bathing in a pool by the wayside. This is one of the most erotic scenes in Persian painting. There are gaps in the text so that readers can turn the pages without leaving fingerprints on the delicate ink and miniatures. Khosrow spying on Shirin as she bathes; gouache, ink, and gold on paper; Iran; early 16th century (On loan from the Association of Friends of Asian Art) The stories of Yusuf (Joseph) and of 60 Ibrahim s sacrifice (see the adjacent painting) are part of both the Bible and the Koran, as well of as many Persian poems. Here we see Yusuf half-naked on a rock at the bottom of a well. The men from a passing caravan who are letting down a rope for him all have different expressions on their faces. One has stuck his finger in his mouth, a sign of his surprise. Malik rescuing Yusuf from the well; gouache and gold on paper; Iran; 16th century (Gift of Mr P. Formijne, Amsterdam) Ibrahim (Abraham) is standing with 61 his knife in his hand, ready to sacrifice Ishmael. According to Islamic tradition, it was not Isaac, but his other son Ishmael that Ibrahim was ordered to sacrifice. Angels are shown descending to save the boy s life. The face of Ibrahim, father of the three great monotheist religions and one of the prophets of Islam, is covered with a veil. This convention made it possible to depict holy figures. According to tradition, the sacrifice took place on the site of the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem. That is probably why the ground is decorated with gold leaf. The sacrifice of Ibrahim; gouache and gold on paper; Iran; 16th century (Gift of Mr P. Formijne, Amsterdam) The tragic love story of Layla and 62 Majnun is a frequent subject of Islamic illustrations. Majnun, driven crazy by love and anguish, went to live among the animals in the desert. The deer and the leopard, normally arch-enemies, are lying peacefully together at his feet. Majnun s uncle Salim is trying to convince him to come home. Hidden in the blue rock formations above and below Salim are the heads of imaginary beasts. Salim visiting Majnun in the desert; gouache and gold on paper; Iran; 16th century (On loan from the Association of Friends of Asian Art) Majnun s half-starved, naked body 63 forms a stark contrast with Layla s beautiful clothing and entourage. The richly detailed tent and the lush vegetation are equally far removed from Majnun s life in the desert. Oxidation has turned the silver stream black. Majnun visiting Layla in her tent; gouache and gold on paper; Iran; 16th century, probably 1524 (On loan from the Association of Friends of Asian Art) In this story from the Book of Kings, 64 the Shahnameh of Ferdowsi, set in pre-islamic Iran, the clever horse Rakhsh rescues his master Rostam. All the action is taking place beyond the borders of the miniature, where Rakhsh is fighting a ferocious lion while Rostam goes on sleeping peacefully. The borders of the