UNIVERSITY OF MAIDUGURI CENTRE FOR DISTANCE LEARNING

UNIVERSITY OF MAIDUGURI CENTRE FOR DISTANCE LEARNING HIS 111: Archaeology of the Nigerian Region (2 Units) Course Facilitator:

STUDY GUIDE Course Code/ Title: HIS 111: Archaeology of the Nigerian Region Credit Units: 2 Timing: 26hrs Total hours of Study per each course material should be twenty Six hours (26hrs) at two hours per week within a given semester. You should plan your time table for study on the basis of two hours per course throughout the week. This will apply to all course materials you have. This implies that each course material will be studied for two hours in a week. Similarly, each study session should be timed at one hour including all the activities under it. Do not rush on your time, utilize them adequately. All activities should be timed from five minutes (5minut es) to ten minutes (10minutes). Observe the time you spent for each activity, whether you may need to add or subtract more minutes for the activity. You should also take note of your speed of completing an activity for the purpose of adjustment. Meanwhile, you should observe the one hour allocated to a study session. Find out whether this time is adequate or not. You may need to add or subtract some minutes depending on your speed. You may also need to allocate separate time for your self-assessment questions out of the remaining minutes from the one hour or the one hour 2

which was not used out of the two hours that can be utilized for your SAQ. You must be careful in utilizing your time. Your success depends on good utilization of the time given; because time is money, do not waste it. Reading: When you start reading the study session, you must not read it like a novel. You should start by having a pen and paper for writing the main points in the study session. You must also have dictionary for checking terms and concepts that are not properly explained in the glossary. Before writing the main points you must use pencil to underline those main points in the text. Make the underlining neat and clear so that the book is not spoiled for further usage. Similarly, you should underline any term that you do not understand its meaning and check for their meaning in the glossary. If those meanings in the glossary are not enough for you, you can use your dictionary for further explanations. When you reach the box for activity, read the question(s) twice so that you are sure of what the question ask you to do then you go back to the in-text to locate the answers to the question. You must be brief in answering those activities except when the question requires you to be detailed. 3

In the same way you read the in-text question and in-text answer carefully, making sure you understand them and locate them in the main text. Furthermore before you attempt answering the (SAQ) be sure of what the question wants you to do, then locate the answers in your in-text carefully before you provide the answer. Generally, the reading required you to be very careful, paying attention to what you are reading, noting the major points and terms and concepts. But when you are tired, worried and weak do not go into reading, wait until you are relaxed and strong enough before you engage in reading activities. Bold Terms: These are terms that are very important towards comprehending/understanding the in-text read by you. The terms are bolded or made darker in the sentence for you to identify them. When you come across such terms check for the meaning at the back of your book; under the heading glossary. If the meaning is not clear to you, you can use your dictionary to get more clarifications about the term/concept. Do not neglect any of the bold term in your reading because they are essential tools for your understanding of the in-text. 4

Practice Exercises a. Activity: Activity is provided in all the study sessions. Each activity is to remind you of the immediate facts, points and major informations you read in the in-text. In every study session there is one or more activities provided for you to answer them. You must be very careful in answering these activities because they provide you with major facts of the text. You can have a separate note book for the activities which can serve as summary of the texts. Do not forget to timed yourself for each activity you answered. b. In-text Questions and Answers: In-text questions and answers are provided for you to remind you of major points or facts. To every question, there is answer. So please note all the questions and their answers, they will help you towards remembering the major points in your reading. c. Self Assessment Question: This part is one of the most essential components of your study. It is meant to test your understanding of what you studied so you must give adequate attention in answering them. The remaining time from the two hours allocated for this study session can be used in answering the self- assessment question. 5

Before you start writing answers to any questions under SAQ, you are expected to write down the major points related to the particular question to be answered. Check those points you have written in the in-text to ascertain that they are correct, after that you can start explaining each point as your answer to the question. When you have completed the explanation of each question, you can now check at the back of your book, compare your answer to the solutions provided by your course writer. Then try to grade your effort sincerely and honestly to see your level of performance. This procedure should be applied to all SAQ activities. Make sure you are not in a hurry to finish but careful to do the right thing. e-tutors: The etutors are dedicated online teachers that provide services to students in all their programme of studies. They are expected to be twentyfour hours online to receive and attend to students Academic and Administrative questions which are vital to student s processes of their studies. For each programme, there will be two or more e-tutors for effective attention to student s enquiries. Therefore, you are expected as a student to always contact your e-tutors through their email addresses or phone numbers which are there in your 6

student hand book. Do not hesitate or waste time in contacting your e-tutors when in doubt about your learning. You must learn how to operate email, because e-mailing will give you opportunity for getting better explanation at no cost. In addition to your e-tutors, you can also contact your course facilitators through their phone numbers and e-mails which are also in your handbook for use. Your course facilitators can also resolve your academic problems. Please utilize them effectively for your studies. Continuous assessment The continuous assessment exercise is limited to 30% of the total marks. The medium of conducting continuous assessment may be through online testing, Tutor Marked test or assignment. You may be required to submit your test or assignment through your email. The continuous assessment may be conducted more than once. You must make sure you participate in all C.A processes for without doing your C.A you may not pass your examination, so take note and be up to date. Examination All examinations shall be conducted at the University of Maiduguri Centre for Distance Learning. Therefore all students must come to the Centre for a period of one week for their examinations. Your preparation for examination 7

may require you to look for course mates so that you form a group studies. The grouping or Networking studies will facilitate your better understanding of what you studied. Group studies can be formed in villages and township as long as you have partners offering the same programme. Grouping and Social Networking are better approaches to effective studies. Please find your group. You must prepare very well before the examination week. You must engage in comprehensive studies. Revising your previous studies, making brief summaries of all materials you read or from your first summary on activities, in-text questions and answers, as well as on self assessment questions that you provided solutions at first stage of studies. When the examination week commences you can also go through your brief summarizes each day for various the courses to remind you of main points. When coming to examination hall, there are certain materials that are prohibited for you to carry ( i.e Bags, Cell phone, and any paper etc). You will be checked before you are allowed to enter the hall. You must also be well behaved throughout your examination period. 8

Centre for Distance Learning University of Maiduguri Course Outline: 1. The Palaeolithic period 2. Agricultural beginning 3. Iron Age 4. Urbanisation 5. Nok culture in pre-history 6. Igbo-Ukwu culture in pre-history 7. Benin culture in pre-history 8. Ife culture in pre-history 9. The Chad basin 9

INTRODUCTION TO THE MODULE Brief: This is the study of selected sites within the Nigerian region where adequate archaeological data are available to give experience in interpretation of archaeological site reports. Spectacular sites worth examining include Nok, Igbo Ukwu, Benin, Ife and the Chad Basin. etc. As a preamble, a widepth study of the various prehistoric epochs is considered, such as the Palaeolithic, Neolithic, Agricultural beginning, Iron Age and urbanisation. 10

STUDY SESSION 1: Definition and Scope of Archaeology of the Nigerian Region INTRODUCTION In this session you with we will acquaint the knowledge of the Archaeology of the Nigerian Region, and identify the scope and the goal of the Archaeology By citing some examples along with some of the agricultural beginning, Igbo- Ukwu culture, Nok Culture Ife culture and the Chad Basin. LEARNING OUTCOMES At the end of this study session, students should be able to: 1.1 Explain the Palaeolithic period, Iron Age and urbanisation 1.2 Identify the scope of archaeology of the Nigerian Region. 1.3 Outline the aims and objectives of Archaeology of the Nigerian Region. 1.1 Discuss the Source of Archaeology of the Nigerian Region In- Text The Palaeolithic Period This is the period when man emerged about 2 ½ to 3 million years ago and lasted through most of the Pleistocene ice age (8300BC). The oldest form of man (Australopithecus) had evolved by the early Pleistocene. The Palaeolithic period is divided into three based on the development of man s economy and the manufacture and use of tools. The three periods are as follows: - Early stone age - Middle stone age - Late Stone Age. Early Stone Age Most tools during this period were made up of bones, wood and stones. Bones and wood are easily perishable materials, while stone tools can survive all the harsh of weather. The earliest stone tools consist of pebble which has a crude chopping and cutting edges, known as the oldo wan type tools named after olduvai Gorge in Tanzania. Such tools are found in most grassland in Africa. Evidence for oldowan type tools had been found in Bali on River Taraba. The early stone age is divided into three phases as follows: - Oldowan 11

- Acheulian - Sangoan The Oldowan It is named after a type site of olduvai gorge in Tanzania. The characteristics stool of the oldowan is the pebble tool, a hammer stone and a scraper. Homo Habilis and Australopithecus were the makers of this culture. The culture may have lasted from 2 million years to 500,000. The Acheulian It is named after a type site in Northern France, St. Acheul. The Characteristic tool is the handaze, a cleaver and round stone balls. A number of Acheulian sites had been found in Nigeria around the Jos Plateau such as Mai Idon Toro and Nok. The culture must have lasted from 500,000 years ago with a terminal date of 55,000. Homo Erectus was the maker of this culture. The Sangoan It is named after a type site of sango bay on lake Victoria. This culture has been disputed by Bassey Wai Ogosu of whether there was a true Sangoan in the whole of West Africa? The culture was characterised by a heavier and cruder tool, typical is the pick. In Nigeria the likely areas with evidence of the Sangoan culture is the old gravels around Jebba, Abuja, Keffi and Nassarawa areas to the south of the Jos plateau, along the Sokoto River, and Ibadan-Abeokuta Road. Homo Sapien was probably the maker of this culture. The culture spans from 55,000 to 40,000 years ago. The Sangoan industrial complex adapted to a more wooded area then the open savannah. The middle stone age The term evolved in southern Africa, where it was used to describe a group of industrial complexes with a span 35,000-12,000 Bb. The industries here were located in wooded areas surrounding the equatorial forests. The characteristics stool is the point (Lanceolate) which was probably hafted and used as spear. Other tools include core axes and chisels. The type sites in Nigeria include Afikpo in eastern Nigeria, and Jos Plateau. The maker of this culture was probably the Homo sapien. The late Stone Age This period was remarkable for the production of tiny tools called microliths usually slotted into arrow shafts to form points and barbs. Typical sites are mejiro cave near old Oyo, rop rock shelter on the Jos Plateau, Iwo Eleru near Akure, Ukpa Rock shelter near Afikpo. In the North East region of Nigeria the example of the late stone age sites are kursakata, Daima, Mege and Ndufu etc. The late Stone Age population of the areas mentioned above were cattle keepers and growers of sorghum (guinea corn). They had pottery and they sourced their stones from areas afar for the production of ground stone axes and grinding stones for food production. They were engaged in the production of small fired clay models of animals and sometimes human beings depicting prehistoric art. They buried their dead in crouched position closed to the settlement. This civilisation has an antiquity of Ca3000 years. 2. AGRICULTURAL BEGINNING Many theories and speculations are abound for the beginning and development of Agriculture in Africa. The lack of evidence in Africa about agricultural origins compared 12

with other parts of the world resulted in to a number of theoretical models. The concept of Neolithic revolution was introduced by Gordon Childe in terms of simple diffusion of movement of people and agricultural Products. Some scholars are of the opinion that agriculture evolved once at a specific location and diffused to other areas, while some see agriculture evolving in different locations probably at the same time or at different times. Whatever the views expressed by the various schools of thoughts, the change from dependence on hunting, fishing and gathering wild to crop raising and stock keeping is a very significant revolution ever achieved by man in the last ten thousand years. Agricultural beginning radically changed mans capacity in controlling his environment, it made sedentary life possible, the storage of food, the accumulation of wealth, it led to division of labour and social stratification. In considering the beginning and development of food production and domestication of animals we have to consider the types of evidence available. Evidence: There are different kinds of evidence both for food production and the domestication of animals as follows: a. Direct archaeological evidence: the remains of domesticated plants and animals in context b. Indirect archaeological Evidence: all materials discovered in archaeological context that suggests the presence of plants and animals eg. rock paintings and terracotta representation. c. Evidence provided by botanical, stocks breeding, ethnographic and linguistic studies. DIRECT BOTANICAL EVIDENCE Direct archaeological evidence for food of botanical origin includes the finding in datable context of actual remains of seed, fruit, root or tree crops, their pollen or impressions of them on pottery. These products are sometimes by accident preserved as a result of aridity, water logging, or they are preserved in human or animal coprolites. Direct evidence for the early cultivation of crops in Africa is small. Egypt and the sahara recorded direct evidence for the cultivation of crops from 6000bc to 4000 of Pennisetum (pearl) millet, (bulrush millet) and Triticum (wheat). In Nigeria direct evidence of sorghum bicolor was obtained at Daima (N.E. Nigeria) from 9/10 century A.D. The carbonised grains at Daima represent the oldest guinea corn yet found in West Africa. Charred remains of domesticated pennisetum grains were found in Kursakata. INDIRECT BOTANICAL EVIDENCE Indirect botanical evidence could be inferred from the presence of certain technological traits such as pottery and ground stone axes. The presence of grinding stones and quern fragments has been taken as demonstrating the practice of agriculture in some parts of Africa. In Nigeria example of indirect evidence of a teeth of the skeleton from Rop Rock shelter seemed to be of an agriculturalist. The Kotoko living south of Lake Chad regard Pennisetum as their oldest kind of food grain. It is also assumed that the first known iron-users in sub-saharan Africa, the Nok people were agriculturist, because of the presence of two terracotta which represent fluted pumpkins. 13

Yam cultivation may be ancient in West Africa. It has been suggested that the Sangoan Pick may have been a tool for grubbing up wild species, from which practice natural vegetative reproduction localised around living places, might have resulted. It is typical of yam to regenerate after the removal of the tuber if too much damage is not done to the vine and roots. Thus ancient hunter gatherers would have been accustomed to the idea of retuning to the same spot for a source of food. In support for early domestication of yam, Coursey (1967), points to the prohibition in certain areas of the use of iron tools for digging of yams in new yam festivals, which strongly suggest that, yam cultivation antedates the commencement of iron age. Posnansky (1969) suggested that the West African Yam began between 2500 and 1500BC. Some of the African cereals (Crops) which are indigenous t o Africa are as follows: Sorghum, Pearl Millet, finger millet, African rice and fonio (Hungry rice). Animal Sources of food. Direct evidence of animal husbandry is often preserved in archaeological record in the form of bones of domesticated animals or wild cattle. Direct evidence Gajiganna a site in Borno proved to have evidence of flocks mainly of cattle and goats. Gajiganna is one of the earliest sites with domesticated animals in West Africa south of the Sahara. Excavation at the Rop rock shelter in Northern Nigeria yielded a single equid tooth dated to over 2000bp. At Kariya Wuro, a rock shelter near Bauchi four equid teeth were found having the same age with that of Rop. Indirect evidence This is demonstrated in the form of rock arts (paintings and engravings) or in the form of terracotta, or undatable skeletons. Rock paintings of cattle at Birnin Kudu depicted long and short horned humpless cattle not dated. In Borno at Gajiganna, animal figurines mostly of incomplete figures represented cattle. The small clay figurines of Gajiganna represent the oldest prehistoric art of Borno, with an antiquity of between 2700 and 3100bp. THE IRON AGE The Stone Age is careful delineated from the iron age because the appearance of iron in their assemblages of artefacts which mde an obvious change in technology. As the knowledge of iron smelting became more widespread and iron cheaper, it had an effect in a greater capacity for bush and forest clearing for agriculture. Presently there are three schools of thoughts as regards the origin of African iron working as follows: 1. The diffusionist 2. The indigenous 3. The cautious This issue were debated by scholars like Andah (1979) and Phillipson (1985) to a certain extent both entertained the idea of independent development of African Iron working. They observed that more rigorous work needed to be done for this reason Andah remarked that not enough was yet known about when, with whom and who iron working began in West Africa, for one to assert positively that the knowledge of the process was transmitted from outside. Phillipson on his part noted, that the first point of the 14

knowledge of iron working could no longer be assumed to have been brought to West Africa from the north. Today because of the providence of thermoluminiscence TL dating more has been known about the origins of iron working in most parts of Africa. Early Metal using communities Excavation of Rop Rock shelter on the Jos Plateau indicated that there was a continuity of occupation from late stone Age to early Iron Age. Daima is the only site where there is a clearly established continuity of occupation from late stone Age to Early Iron Age. The first appearance of Iron at Daima is now placed between 5 th or 6 th Centuries AD. During this period the use of stone and bone tools seemed to have died out. The Iron using communities were agriculturalists as evidenced by the presence of carbonized sorghum. Making of clay figurines of cows and the construction of a near permanent habitation of huts of mud was their preoccupation. They also used objects of adornment like bronze ornaments, stone lip plugs, and beads. One of the earliest iron age culture yet known in West Africa is that of the Nok valley located to the west of Jos Plateau. It extended as far south as Katsina Ala, Ankiring and Kagara. It was characterised by terracotta figurines, mostly heads of human beings - the classic example being the Jema a head. Other Nok artefacts include iron axe blades, tin beads, pieces of iron smelting furnaces, iron slag and tuyeres. There were also representations in terracotta of animals like elephants monkeys and snake heads, some of which had ornamented the rims of pottery. By the latter part of the 1 st millennium B.C. there were settled agricultural communities at Samun Dukiya in central Nigeria, smelting their iron and producing works of art of terracotta. Materials recovered from this site include grinding stone, fragments of iron, stone bead and figurines. Taruga, is another Nok culture settlement site southeast of Abuja. The settlement possessed several smelting furnaces and associated with it were iron slag, tuyeres, charcoal, terracotta figurine fragments, and a number of iron objects. A radio carbon date for the site yielded 4 th /5 th centuries B.C - the oldest date for iron smelting so far known in West Africa. Rescue excavation have revealed the existence of iron using communities at least before the end of the 1 st millennium BC in the Kainji area (eg Kagoge, Baha, Barichi, Rs 63/32 near Yelwa etc). The people herded domestic animals and made glass and stone beads, pottery vessels and clay figurines. They also made great use of iron objects like knives, axes, fish hooks, spears and arrows for farming, fishing and hunting. Copper working or bronze and brass casting were distributed in ancient times over a wide area of West Africa. The Igbo-Ukwu bronzes dating between 9 th and 11 th century AD are stylistically different from those of Ife and Benin. The Igbo Ukwu bronzes are a large collection of objects consisting of regalia of an important personality and objects from shrine. The objects were manufactured using two techniques - cire Perdue technique (lost wax method) and by smithing. Spectrographic analysis indicated that the objects produced by casting were made from leaded bronze with varying amount of tin and lead. The objects produced by smithing were made of pure copper. 15

Ife objects were made of copper alloyed with zinc with relatively high quantity of lead. Few objects were made of copper. The Ife brasses had been dated to around the 12 th to 14 th century A.D. Benin Possessed large number of objects numbering over 2000 most of brass dated to about 13 th century AD. Few bronze objects were found in the middle Niger villages of Jebba, Tada and Giragi. The objects are of mixed artistic styles. Methods of Copper working Most West African bronze and brass objects were manufactured by casting (the pouring of molten metals in to moulds). One method of casting is the open mould or bivalve. A bivalve consists of two halves of a stone, clay or metal mould pegged together. The space between the two halves of the mould possesses the shape of the object being cast. After the metal has cooled, the mould is opened. Another technique of casting is the cire Perdue or lost wax. In this case a model of the object required is made in wax. The model is covered with clay and the whole is then heated to allow the wax to melt and run off. This leaves a space in to which molten metal is poured. After it has cooled the outside clay is knocked off, the inner core may be removed and the remaining is a metal version of the original wax model. Copper can also be worked by smithing and chasing, unalloyed copper can easily be shaped by hammering, bending, twisting and annealing either hot or cold. Methods of Iron working In prehistoric times the production of iron was done using the furnace. Iron was produced in many parts of West Africa, with the smelters using different types of furnaces, such as the Shaft furnaces in the Taruga areas, and the Dome furnace in the idoma areas, the pit or bowl furnace in Lejja near Nsukka. In these furnaces iron is in contact or mixed with charcoal. The charcoal which is carbon, burns and combines with oxygen from the air to form the gas, carbon monoxide. This hot gas passes up through the furnace and reacts with the iron oxide by removing or reducing deposited iron. The reduction of iron oxide to a spongy mass called bloom takes place at a temperature of 700 c. This iron bloom consists of mass of iron particles and slag. The smith later consolidates this mass of iron particles by heating and hammering it together. Smithing Smithing in West Africa is characterised by the following; a forge - a fire point, an anvil, bellows and a mud wall constructed in front of the fire point and behind the tuyere. Fire making is important in the whole process. The effectiveness of forging will depend solely on the ability of the black smith to ensure adequate supply of heat. The controlling factor in fire making is the bellow. The anvil acts as a support upon which the red-hot iron is fashioned to the desired shape. Black smiths usually make use of two types of hammers; the sledge and flattening hammers. The sledge hammer is used to hammer the red hot iron to the desired shape and thickness, while the flattening hammers give smooth surface finish to the object produced. Forging of iron objects appear uniform among different groups of blacksmiths in West Africa. 16

Socio-political and Economic significance of metal working Metal objects had religious and ritual significance in West African societies. For example iron tools were used in the burial of chiefs in some areas. In Yorubaland there are temples or shrines for Ogun in the palaces of kings. The Ogun ladi shrine is still preserved at the Afin (palace) of the Oni of Ife. In Benin, monumental heads and fre e standing figures were cast to take their place in shrines to royal ancestors. Some bronzes and iron objects fulfilled artistic and decorative purposes. Metal implements had also served political purposes. Implements such as swords, spears and matchets had been used by rulers of early West Africa states and kingdom. Decline of Iron smelting in Africa The earliest explanation for the decline of African iron smelting centred around trade models whereby imported European metal goods were seen as superior and as such caused the decline of African iron working. Some scholars attributed the demise of the industry more to deforestation effects. The industry made huge demands on hardwoods, very difficult to regenerate. In conclusion it may be observed that the use of iron implement was basically an improvement on the age long use of wood, stone and bone implements - iron implements were much stronger and more effective. The use of iron implements led to the improvements in the methods and techniques of farming, hunting and fishing. In-Text Questions (ITQ) When you have completed this session you will be able to answer these questions: (a) What is archaeology of Nigerian Region? (b) What is the economic significant of metal working In-Text Answers (ITA) (a) Source of archaeology has shown that Nigerian region especially that of North- East region is one of the oldest region that established empire and had coexist before many nations this denotes that African or black man has no past to reckon with stock cultures and urbanization. (b) There are many social, economic and politico-religious significant in metal working. For instance, in Yorubaland there are temples or shrines for Ogun in the palaces of kings. The Ogun ladi shrine is still preserved at the Afin (palace) of the Oni of Ife. In Benin, monumental heads and free standing figures were cast to take their place in shrines to royal ancestors. Some bronzes and iron objects fulfilled artistic and decorative purposes. Metal implements had also served 17

political purposes. Coming North-East region, it had economic important, political and agricultural development. SUMMARY In session 1, you have learnt that: 1. The knowledge of archaeology of the Nigerian Region, the early stone age, middle stone age and late stone age, agricultural beginning, Irong Age, Urbanisation etc, yet you have learnt Oldowan, Acheulian and Sangoan of the early stone age. 2. In Nigeria, most of the stone age materials in the Jos plateau and the famous NOK culture were discovered accidentally as a result of tin mining operation. The Ugfulu Ukwu site in Ukigwe Local Government Area was discovered by lady geography students from the University of Nigeria, Nsukka. The Igbo-Ukwu site was discovered accidentally in 1939 by a man while trying to dig a cistern in his compound. The Lejja iron smelting site in Nsukka area was discovered by a technician in May 1980. The rock paintings of cattle at Birnin Kudu were brought to the attention of archaeologist in 1954. The Daima mound in Borno was first shown to Graham Connah by the Waziri of Dikwa in 1965. The Dufuna canoe accidentally discovered by a Fulani cattle rearer Mal. Ya'u while trying to dig a well to water his cattle was brought to the attention of Abubakar Garba, then the only practicing archaeologist in the North- East region of Nigeria. Self-Assessment Question 1. Identify the various industrial complexes of the Palaeolithic period References Borowne, D. 1975 Principles and Practice in Modern Archaeology, Teach Yourself Books, Hodder and Stoughton, London Show, T. 1975 Lectures on Nigerian Prehistory and Archaeology Ibadan, University Press Ibadan. Suggested Readings Andah, B. W. & Okpoko, A. I. 1994 Practicing Archaeology in Africa, Wisdom Publishers Limited, Ibadan. 18

Andah, B. W. & Okpoko, A. I. 2006 Foundations of civilisation in Tropical Africa, special book issue, West African Journal of Archaeology, Second edition, Vol. 3b ( 1& 2) Andah, B. W. & Okpoko, A. I. 1979 Perspectives on West Africa s Past, Special Book Issue of West Africa, Journal of Archaeology Vol 9 19

STUDY SESSION 2 Development of Archaeology the Nigerian Region INTRODUCTION Urbanisation There has been long debate among scholars as to what constitutes urbanisation, when does one label a settlement as urban?, Why was only a particular settlement among many become urbanised?, What is the distinction between a city and town?. These are some of the questions which puzzled scholars for many years. The most popular definition in the first half of this century was that of Louis Wirth (1938) who defined a city as a relatively dense and permanent settlement of socially heterogeneous individuals. The British archaeologist V. Gordon Childe in his paper Urban Revolution (1950) spelt out ten criteria which he used not only to define urban but also civilisation as a whole. He claimed that these criteria were deducible from archaeological record and that it was when all these were met that one could consider a settlement as truly urban. The traits include density of population, full time specialisation, surplus food, monumental architecture, political, authority, writing, cylindrical and mathematical sciences, art, raw materials and regular foreign trade. It is significant that most of these criteria were based on Childe s experience of the Near east. Unfortunately, until fairly recently scholars dealing with urban problems could not rid themselves of the Euro-American situation, largely from the results of industrialisation, which was seen by many as the only cause of urban development. Many carried this narrow view point to the extent that they concluded that Africa had no urban tradition. Recent archaeological, historical, and sociological evidences are clearly showing that Africa like any other continent had early urban centres which did not originate from industrialisation. One distinctive feature of the conceptualisation of towns and cities as units of settlement which perform specialised functions of an economic nature in relation to a broader hinterland is the assumption that urban settlements were made possible with the emergence of farming and metal working or farming and trade. Connah (1987) argues that the West Africa environment as a whole and in particular the savannah provided condition conducive to the development of a complex network of trade. He thinks it quite likely that such trading activity was almost as old as West African food production and may date back to about 3000 years ago. Mabogunje on the other hand, defined urbanisation simply as the process whereby human beings congregate in relatively large number at one particular spot of the earth surface. He rejected the ethnocentric notions that the presence of writing or the absence of agricultural workers can be used to distinguish between those communities that are urbanised and those that are not. By his definition we can see the origins of urbanisation of the lake Chad area in the 12 th century A.D. and some by the late 15 th century. There were urban centres west of the lake, such as Birnin Gazargamu, Kazarma, Mintur, Yedi, Kule and Marte. The Archaeological Evidence 20

For many years it has been assumed that much of the impetus for the development of complex West African societies came from outside stimulation of the indigenous economy in the lake 8 th century A.D as North Africans initiated trans-saharan trade for gold and slaves from sub-saharan regions. During the past decade excavation and radiocarbon dating have revealed evidence of complex social stratification, long distance trade and even urbanisation in West Africa by the middle of the 1 st millennium A.D. Kanem-Bornu had its foundation in the first millennium A.D. Around 12 th century AD the empire expanded and by about 14 th century it was weakened due to dynastic problems and civil wars and the capital moved from Njimi to Birnin Gazargamo. The most famous early urban centre in present N.E. part of Nigeria was Birnin Gazargamo founded in 1470 AD and abandoned by 1803 AD after its destruction by the Jihadist. The firki settlement site of Daima contains evidence of occupation which spans from the late Stone Age to Iron age-evidence suggests that the area was occupied for almost 1,700 years. Kano has one of the largest concentrations of iron smelting site in Africa associated with a wealth of walled settlements which represent different stages of urban development. One of the oldest known blacksmith ward are of Kutumbawa origin whose ancestors were of the same groups with the rulers of Kano before the Jihad. There were also group of blacksmiths around Dala hill where the first blacksmith settled. Zaria an ancient city is located among series of inselbergs mostly favourable as a fertile agricultural land and it served some defensive advantages. Turunku was the seat of the ancient state of Zazzau. Ancient Ife represents the first order of political centralisation over the area of Yorubaland; dated between AD 900 and 1500. Ife was an excellent site for a major commercial and agricultural centre. We can conclude from archaeological and historical data that the beginning of urbanisation and state formation cannot be attributed to a single factor but to various factors or combination of factors such as geographical, economic, political, social and military factors etc. NOK CULTURE IN PREHISTORY The Nok culture was discovered in 1928 as a result of tin mining operation. The finds from the site revealed an early Iron Age population at a village called Nok where they were first found. The remains consist of terracotta figurines. The first terracotta figurine discovered was that of head of a monkey which was deposited at the mines Museum in Jos by Col. J. D. Young. That discovery remained unique until 1943 when another terracotta head was discovered in Jema a at Tsauni. Mr. Bernard Fagg who was appointed Government Archaeologist inspected the tin mining areas and a number of 21

figurines and other archaeological objects were rescued and this formed the basis of the Jos Museum. Fagg made his first publication on the terracotta in 1945 where he categorised them in to The Nok series and the Jema a series. It was observed that the figurines were made of clay mixed with small grains of quartz and silica derived from the surrounding hills and the Jos plateau. From 1947-1951 several discoveries of the terracotta figurines were made either at Nok proper, Wamba or Tsauni. Spatial distribution The terracotta figurines were found greatly concentrated around Nok and Jema a. The distribution radiated to all directions. It reaches Katsina Ala in the south east including Ankiring, Jema a, Tare and Wamba. Udegi is directly south, while in the south-west are Bwari, Kawu, Samban, Shere Koro and Taruga. West and North-west are Kuchamfa, Kutofo and Kagara, while Kachia is on the northernmost point and Amban and Maitumbi are in the east. Description of the Nok Figurines The figurines were all modelled in clay. The Nok figurines are hollow and coil-built and reworked from the outside. The fabric consists of clay with grain of mica, quartz or granite. The height of the Nok terracotta varies from 10cm to 120cm. The majority of the terracotta represent human heads and figures; and several representations of parts of animals such as elephant head, monkey head, and several snakes. Other finds from the Nok culture include polished stone axes and adzes, probably meant for wood carving, before the introduction of iron to the area. Grindstones were common, suggestive of the use of vegetable food. Tin beads were found in the deposits of the Nok valley. Quartz beads and domestic pottery occurred. Functions of the Terracotta At the moment scholars are not sure about the functions of the terracottas. Since we do not have direct association with the prehistoric populations who made them, we can only speculate about their functions. It must be noted that their functions may differ from place to place. 22

It is possible that the figurines could have been used as thatch finials of round huts, those having circulars bases like an inverted pot would have been well suited for this purpose. The practice is still current with Gbagyi and Ham ethnic groups within the Nok culture area. Investigation among the above ethnic groups indicates that they are used as thatch finials to indicate huts which are shrines such that women and initiated young men do not go close to them. In some dwellings huts, they are used for decorations on newly thatched huts. The association of terracottas with iron smelting furnaces at Taruga would suggest a magico-religious link which certainly accompanies the technical procedure for a successful smelt. Iron smelting is not without hazard and the terracotta could have served as a protection. The terracottas could also have been used as grave goods or personal offerings for the dead. This practice was common among the Dakarkari and Mumuye groups until recently. Relationship of Nok Arts and Other Cultures Most archaeologists and Art historians are of the view that the Nok art may be ancestral to some of the former art traditions found in central Nigeria. Many of the terracottas rest on upturned pots, a form which is still found in Thatch finials among the Jaba and other ethnic groups within the Nok culture area today. The Nok terracotta and that of Ife are similar in that they were often adorned with elaborate beadwork and most importantly is that they are the only two ancient styles of terracotta sculpture known to date in Africa ever to attempt to represent human beings approaching life size. IGBO-UKWU IN PREHISTORY In 1939 a man was digging a cistern in his compound on the outskirts of Igbo-Ukwu, 125 miles S-E of Onitsha when he struck on valuable archaeological objects mostly made up of bronzes. This is also an archaeological discovery made by a layman, a nonarchaeologist. The most interesting thing about the bronze was the nature of their style and decoration which was distinct from the bronze of Benin and Ife. Excavation Between 1559-66 Thurstan Shaw was invited to excavate the site, assisted by Liman Ciroma. The first site was Igbo Isaiah situated within the compound of Isaiah. In this 23

compound as a result of the excavation an iron blade, highly decorated pot set on its own open work stand was later recognised as the characteristics ancient Igbo Ukwu ware later copied and repeated in a number of bronzes. The second site is christened Igbo Richard a neighbour and relative of Isaiah who also reported of strange things in his compound. The third one was that of Igbo Jonah revealed several objects. Bronzes The contents from the excavation consisted of highly decorated bronzes such as large bowls, bronze shells, ornamental, bosses, large pendant ornaments, three staff heads, spiral snake ornaments, scabbard support, and other miscellaneous objects. A number of highly ornamented complete pots characterised by deep channelling were found together with large number of beads mostly of coloured glass but some of carnelian. The nature of the bronzes was strongly suggestive of sacred vessels used for some ceremonial or ritual purpose and of ornaments and regalia for some important person or persons. The Burial Chamber As a result of excavation at Igbo-Ukwu, roughly about one meter, a number of pots were met on a pedestal, with characteristic deep grooving, decorated with snakes and some are of skeuomorphic of basket work. This irregularly pile of pots probably represented a shrine associated with offerings made to the spirit of the dignitary buried in the burial chamber. A peculiar feature of this shrine, was that among the pots and broken pots-herds were a larger number of pieces of pottery which had been rubbed down to a special shape. There were some 1500 of these little pottery pegs in the shrine, perhaps they represented votive offerings of some kind. Royalty was depicted in some of the contents of the excavation. Three ivory tusks possibly carved as horns in association with copper bosses closed to a human skull surrounded with beads was obtained. The skull was also associated with a decorated pectoral plate, a crown with several ornaments which conclusively was a burial chamber of someone of great social importance. The chamber was lined up with traces of matting and textiles in contact with some of the copper objects. By noticing carefully the positions of the bones and all the other objects, it was possible to conclude that the corpse had been buried in sitting positions upon a stool, the arms supported by the copper 24

brackets and fan-holder and a fly switch set in its hands, richly dressed in beads surmounted by a crown and a pectoral plate on the chest, close by, were the remains of at least five individuals, perhaps slaves buried to accompany their lord in the next world. Antiquity of Igbo-Ukwu Finds At one time it was said that the Igbo-Ukwu finds could not be very old because of the presence of textiles. But this is not necessarily true because textile in close association with copper objects inhibits termite and bacterial activity, which have acted as a preservative. Some of the wood from the stool decorated with copper bosses from the burial chamber in Igbo Richard were used for radio carbon dating and yielded a date of AD 850 + 120. Charcoal from Igbo Jonah yielded a date of AD 875 + 130. This means the Igbo Ukwu finds were dated to around 9 th century AD. LEARNING OUTCOMES At the end of this study session, students should be able to: 2.1 Explain what constitutes urbanisation, when does one label a settlement as urban? 2.2 Discuss why only a particular settlement among many become urbanised? 2.3 Explain the distinction between a city and town? 2.4 Outline the stages of Nok culture figurines relationship of Nok arts and other cultures. 2.5 Discuss the burial chamber. 2.1 Urbanisation Urbanization is removal of the rural character of a town or area, a process associated with the development of civilization. The most popular definition in the first half of this century was that of Louis Wirth (1938) who defined a city as a relatively dense and permanent settlement of socially heterogeneous individualism. By this definition we can see the origins of urbanisation of the lake Chad area in the 12 th century A.D. and some by the late 15 th century. There were urban centres west of the lake, such as Birnin Gazargamu, Kazarma, Mintur, Yedi, Kule and Marte, while in 18 th to 19 th centuries, gathering settlement and urbanised some cities like Sokoto and earlier Ibadan. 25

2.2 Nok culture, settlement site southeast of Abuja, the settlement possessed several smelting furnaces and associated with it were iron slag, tuyeres, charcoal, terracotta figurine fragments, and a number of iron objects. A radio carbon date for the site yielded 4 th /5 th centuries B.C - the oldest date for iron smelting so far known in West Africa. NOK culture were discovered accidentally as a result of tin mining operation IN-TEXT QUESTIONS (ITQ) : (1) Describe Ancient city of Ife. (2) What is Functions of the Terracotta? IN-TEXT ANSWERS (ITA) (1) The ancient city of Ife represents the first order of political centralisation over the area of Yorubaland; dated between AD 900 and 1500. Ife was an excellent site for a major commercial and agricultural centre. We can conclude from archaeological and historical data that the beginning of urbanisation and state formation cannot be attributed to a single factor but to various factors or combination of factors such as geographical, economic, political, social and military factors etc. (2) Functions of the Terracotta, it is associated with iron smelting furnaces at Taruga would suggest a magico-religious link which certainly accompanies the technical procedure for a successful smelt. Iron smelting is not without hazard and the terracotta could have served as a protection. The terracottas could also have been used as grave goods or personal offerings for the dead. This practice was common among the Dakarkari and Mumuye groups until recently. SUMMARY 1. Urbanisation is a city as a relatively dense and permanent settlement of socially heterogeneous individuals or society for social, cultural, economic political and agricultural benefits. It can be a yardstick of civilisation 2. Nok Culture. The Nok culture was discovered in 1928 as a result of tin mining operation. The finds from the site revealed an early Iron Age population at a village called Nok where they were first found. The remains consist of terracotta figurines. 3. Igbo-Ukwu, 125 miles S-E of Onitsha when he struck on valuable archaeological objects mostly made up of bronzes. This is also an archaeological discovery made by a layman, non-archaeologists. The most interesting thing about the 26

bronze of Igbo-Ukwu was the nature of their style and decoration which was distinct from the bronze of Benin and Ife. The site was discovered in 1939 Self -Assessment Question 1. What are the direct and indirect evidences of the beginning of Agriculture? References Show, T. 1975 Lectures on Nigerian Prehistory and Archaeology Ibadan, University Press Ibadan. Bassey, W. Andah and Okpoko A. (1994) Practising Archaeology in Africa.. Ibadan: Suggested Readings Wisdom publishers Limited. David Browne (1975) - Principles and Practice in Modern Archaeology,. Ibadan: Hodder and Stoughton. Thurstan Shaw (1975) - Lectures on Nigerian Prehistory and Archaeology Ibadan: University Press. Walu L. D. (2001) Basic Archaeology, Jos: Mazlink Nigeria Limited, 27

INTRODUCTION Significant archaeology brought through have been made in Chad basin, since the Daima Excavation by Graham Connah in 1965-66, the Daima excavation with an antiquity of 3000 years has now being surpassed by a more aged find the Dufuna Canoe dating 8,500 years and the date of a pottery on a sand pit at Konduga dating over 6000 years, as one of the oldest settlement in West Africa. LEARNING OUTCOMES At the end of this study session, the students should be able to: 3.1 Discuss Benin Culture in Pre-history. 3.2 Discuss on Ife culture in Pre-history. 3.3 Explain Daima excavation. 3.4 Describe the archaeological site in the Chad basin. BENIN IN PRE-HISTORY The sources for the history of Benin are made up of traveller s description, oral tradition, art history and archaeology. Little is known about the earliest history of Benin. Some historians indicated that its beginnings date from about 11 th century, AD. Some historians also ascribed development within Benin to be exotic. There were suggestions that the Bini absorbed some Sudanic elements. There are traditions of doubtful antiquity, which say that they came originally from Egypt via Sudan and Ife arrived Benin and claimed that it had already been inhabited by people who came from the Sudan. Historically Benin was important because its development centred on a major urban unit ruled by a semi-divine king. It had an iron working technology and Cire Perdue casting tradition second to none. From travellers record they had bronzes and horses used as status symbols. Benin architecture was also remarkable which some scholars indicated that it had influence from the north. In an attempt to comprehend the prehistory of Benin the following issues should be examined. They are: 28