Beginner's Guides are available on the following subjects:

Beginner's Guides are available on the following subjects: Amateur Radio BASIC Programming Bricklaying Car Maintenance, Fault-Finding and Repair Colour Television Computers Digital Electronics Electric Wiring Electronics Gemmology Hi-Fi Information Technology Integrated Circuits Microcomputer Languages Microcomputers in Business Microcomputing Microprocessors Processing and Printing Radio Television Videocassette Recorders

Beginner's Guide to Gemmology Peter G. Read H E I N E M A N N P R O F E S S I O N A L P U B L I S H I N G

Heinemann Professional Publishing Ltd 22 Bedford Square, London WC1Β 3HH LONDON MELBOURNE AUCKLAND First published by Butterworth & Co. (Publishers) Ltd 1980 Reprinted 1981, 1984 First published by Heinemann Professional Publishing Ltd 1988 Heinemann Professional Publishing Ltd 1988 British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data Read, Peter G Beginner's guide to gemmology 1. Precious stones I. Title 549 QE392 79-42719 ISBN 0 434 91753 2 Printed and bound in Great Britain by Butler & Tanner Ltd, Frome and London

Preface The Beginner's Guide to Gemmology has been written to introduce both the newcomer and the student to the fascinating science of gemstones. While the cohecting of rough mineral specimens, the design of jewellery and the pohshing of gemstones are very popular as hobbies, the more scientific aspects of the basic gem materials are stih little understood. Such an understanding is, of course, essential to the student who intends to become a qualified gemmologist, but it can also lead to a better awareness and enjoyment of the subject for the amateur. The book begins by tracing the growth of the science of gemmology. It then explains the basic quahties necessary in a gem, and goes on to unravel the intricacies of colour, crystahography, hardness, specific gravity, refractive index, pleochroism, critical angle,absorption spectra and luminescence, giving a brief historical background wherever relevant. Gem testing instruments are described, together with their use in the identification of natural gemstones, synthetic gemstones and gemstone simulants. Separate chapters deal with the organic gem materials such as pearl, amber, ivory and coral, and with the techniques used in the production of the man-made gemstones. The appendices contain profiles of the principal gem materials, together with tables of gemstone constants, a bibliography to assist in further study, and notes relevant to the student who is preparing to take the Prehminary or Diploma examinations of the Gemmological Association of Great Britain. Peter G. Read

1 Gemmology, the Science of Gem Materials Although philosophers, scientists and jewellers have been interested in the characteristics of gemstones for over two thousand years, and books on the subject were in print as long ago as the sixteenth century, it was not until comparatively recently that gemmology became established as a separate science. One of the events which helped to bring this about was the estabhshment of the British Gemmological Association, which was founded in 1908 as the Educational Committee of the National Association of Goldsmiths. Further impetus to the growth of the new science was given by the work of pioneers such as Herbert Smith and Bristow TuUy who developed some of the first commercial gem testing instruments. In the early days of gemmology, very few specialised instruments of this type were available to the gemmologist, their initial slow development being due, no doubt, to the very limited demand for such instruments. Today, however, the situation is quite different. The growing consumer market for jewellery has not only increased the number of retail outlets, but also resulted in increased sales of gem testing instruments. This has made the design and manufacture of such instruments economically worthwhile, and they are now produced not only in the UK, but also in the USA, Japan, Belgium, Germany, Switzerland and Italy (Figure 1.1). Another milestone in the development of gemmology was reached in 1925 when Basil Anderson was asked to set up a gem testing laboratory for the London Chamber of Commerce. The 1

2 GEMMOLOGY, THE SCIENCE OF GEM MATERIALS laboratory's first task was to devise a means of distinguishing between cultured and natural pearls, but it was soon to become a centre of gemmological research. During the following years, C. J. Payne, R. Webster and A. E. Farn joined the staff of the laboratory, and with Basil Anderson were responsible for the development of many important gem testing techniques which include spectroscopy. X-ray analysis, the use of heavy liquids and luminescence. Fig. 1.1, A selection from over one hundred items of gem testing equipment In 1929, Robert M. Shipley received the British Gemmological Association's Diploma, and back in his native America began lecturing on gemmology to the local retail jewellers, and marketing his own correspondence courses on the subject. He then founded the Gemological Institute of America and the American Gem Society, and made them both influential bodies in the growing international world of gemmology. As the need for a sound knowledge of gemstones spread, gemmological associations were formed in most of the leading gem marketing countries of the world. Despite the proliferation of associations and study courses, however, the high standards of the British Association's examinations have maintained their

GEMMOLOGY, THE SCIENCE OF GEM MATERIALS 3 Diploma as one of the most valued of gemmological qualifications (i.e. FGA, Fellow of the Gemmological Association). Because jewellery includes gem materials which have an organic as well as a mineral content, gemmology has become a comprehensive science covering not only mineralogy, geology, optics and chemistry, but also overlapping into the fields of zoology, biology and botany. Among the gem materials used in jewellery, the largest group is that which is derived from the mineral kingdom. The first part of this book therefore deals principally with the characteristics of gemstones having a mineral origin. Gem materials of an organic origin, such as ivory, bone, pearl, coral, tortoiseshell, jet, ebony and amber are described separately in Chapter 10, which also covers the methods of distinguishing them from their simulants. In the jewellery trade it is often necessary to be able to distinguish a natural gemstone from a synthetic stone or a simulant, and it is this need which gives gemmology its strong practical bias. As new synthetics are introduced, it is the task of the professional gemmologist to discover ways and means of identifying them, and this is now perhaps one of the most exciting and challenging aspects of gemmology. Apart from its commercial use in gem testing and identification, gemmology also serves the needs of the lapidary and the diamond polisher, as it encompasses such subjects as crystallography, directional hardness and the optics of polished stones. A knowledge of gemstone constants and characteristics can also make the collecting and display of gemstone samples far more interesting to both the amateur gemmologist and the 'rockhound'. The essential qualities of a gem material So far we have taken a brief look at the history and diversity of the science of gem materials. Now we must consider the basic qualities that make gemstones and gem materials suitable for use in jewellery. The first and most obvious of these qualities

4 GEMMOLOGY, THE SCIENCE OF GEM MATERIALS is beauty. Unlike a gemstone's more tangible properties, beauty is not a measurable quantity, but depends mainly on subjective factors associated with the appearance of the stone. If the stone is a transparent coloured gem, the depth of colour and degree of transparency will be the prime factors. With other gems, such as diamond, beauty will be determined by features such as brilliancy, optical purity and the absence of colour, while with precious opal, it will be the iridescent play of colour from beneath the gem's surface that will be the decisive factor. Rarity is another quality which must be present in some degree in all gemstones. As this is generally the product of supply and demand, the rarity of a stone can be influenced both by fashion and by variations in the availability of the source material. Two examples of these influences can be seen in amber, which is becoming popular again and correspondingly more expensive, and in amethyst, which, until the discovery of the rich South American sources in the eighteenth century, was a rare and costly gemstone. Although alexandrite is not universally accepted as a particularly beautiful stone, its unusual optical properties and its rarity have now made it one of the most expensive of all the gems. Diamonds are expensive, but as the world production of uncut gem quality diamonds for 1977-8 was in the region of ten million carats, the cost of the finished product is not entirely due to rarity, but is also influenced by the economics of the mining and recovery of the rough stone and the high cost of its polishing and marketing operations. The third quality which must be present in a gemstone to make it suitable for use in jewellery is its hardness or durability. This is a more practical quality than either beauty or rarity, but without it a gemstone would not be able to withstand either the everyday wear and tear experienced by a piece of jewellery, or the chemical attack from pollutants in the atmosphere, and it would soon lose its surface polish. Hardness is therefore a most important quality in a gemstone, and its significance in lapidary work, in diamond polishing and in gemstone identification will be discussed fully in Chapter 4.

GEMMOLOGY, THE SCIENCE OF GEM MATERIALS 5 The terms 'precious' and 'semi-precious' have often been applied to gemstones in an attempt to separate them into two arbitrary valuation categories. Precious gems included the highvalue stones such as diamond, ruby, sapphire, alexandrite and emerald, while tourmaline, amethyst, citrine, zircon and peridot were classified as semi-precious. This practice was often meaningless and contradictory, particularly when, for instance, the value of a poor quality ruby was compared with that of a fine peridot. Today, except perhaps for the purposes of import/export documentation, the terms precious and semi-precious are discouraged in both the jewellery trade and in gemmology, and a gemstone is simply classified as being of gem quality by virtue of its beauty, rarity and durability, regardless of its commercial value. Gem minerals At the beginning of this chapter, the word 'mineral' was used to describe one of the groups of gem materials employed in jewellery. Almost all gemstones belong to this group, and it is relevant at this point to explain what is meant by a mineral. The dictionary definition of the word is 'a substance obtained by mining'. The more precise scientific definition, however, describes it as being a substance which has been formed in the earth's crust by the forces of inorganic (i.e. 'non-hving') nature. It is also a homogeneous, or uniform, substance, and has a chemical formula and a set of physical characteristics which are constant throughout its bulk. In mineralogy, there are several thousand listed minerals, but only about fifty of these have the necessary qualities to make them suitable for use as gems. Within this select group of gem minerals there is a smaller group of metallic minerals. These include gold, silver, platinum and the platinum group metals rhodium and iridium (rhodium is used as a protective plating on silver and iridium is often alloyed with gold or platinum). These precious metals share the distinction with

6 GEMMOLOGY, THE SCIENCE OF GEM MATERIALS diamond of being chemical elements in their own right, instead of being compounds of elements as are all other gem materials. Rock and gemstone formation Although minerals are mined from the earth's crust in various states of purity, the bulk of this crust is made up of various mixtures of minerals which are classified as rocks. Granite, for example, is a relatively common rock which is composed of a mixture of feldspar, quartz and mica. The majority of gemstones, however, are composed of just one mineral, the main exception being lapis lazuu, which contains a mixture of lazurite, sodalite, calcite and pyrite, and is therefore a rock and not a mineral. IGNEOUS (extrusive, volcanic) SEOIRflENTARY PRE-EXISTING Fig. 1.2. Sketch showing the relative positions of igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks Rocks and their constituent gem minerals can be divided into three broad groups which indicate the way in which they were formed {Figure 1.2). These groups are as follows.

Igneous GEMMOLOGY, THE SCIENCE OF GEM MATERIALS 7 This type of rock solidified from the molten magma either within the earth or at its surface. Those rocks which solidified deep inside the earth are called intrusive, plutonic or abyssal rocks (such as granite), while those which were formed by the more rapid cooling of magma at the surface are called extrusive or volcanic (e.g. lava). Most of the important gem minerals. Fig. 1.3. Single crystals of feldspar, quartz, tourmaline, beryl, topaz and zircon, as formed in intrusive or plutonic rocks such as the feldspars and quartzs, tourmaline, beryl, topaz and zircon, are found in intrusive or plutonic rocks, the slower rate of cooling making it possible for quite large crystals to form from the molten residues {Figure 1.3). As the temperature of the original molten magma dropped, the feldspar minerals were the first to soudify, and having plenty of space they produced large well-shaped crystals. As the magma continued to cool, other minerals crystallised out. Of these, quartz was one of the last to solidify, and as it had much less room than the others in which to grow, was not always able to produce such well-defined crystals.

GEMMOLOGY, THE SCIENCE OF GEM MATERIALS Fig. 1.4. The sawn and polished section of a geode. Rapid cooling probably produced the main agate layer of microscopic crystals, while a more leisurely fall in temperature allowed time for the larger quartz crystals in the centre to form. The method by which the concentric bands were produced is still a matter of speculation Many of the intrusive gem bearing rocks formed as coarsegrained granites called pegmatites. Geodes are another form of igneous occurrence in which gem minerals have been precipitated as crystals in almost spherical cavities formed by molten or aqueous residues trapped in the magma (Figure 1.4). Sedimentary This group was formed from the fine deposits of sand, grit and clay which were eroded from ancient pre-existing rocks by the action of rain, wind and flowing water to form layers of sandstone or limestone. Except for organic materials such as amber and jet, these rocks contain no primary gem material. However, if the original weathered rock contained heavier minerals (e.g. gem minerals) these were often washed out and swept away to form secondary or alluvial deposits. These gemstones are

GEMMOLOGY, THE SCIENCE OF GEM MATERIALS 9 classified as sedimentary gem material, and can be seen in the gem gravels of Burma and Sri Lanka. Opal is also formed as a secondary deposit, and was washed out of silica-bearing rocks and soils to solidify in fissures and crevices as thin veins of porous silica gel material. Metamorphic These are pre-existing igneous or sedimentary rocks which have been subjected to high pressures and temperatures beneath the surface of the earth, and as a result have undergone changes of chemistry and shape. Marble is a metamorphic rock which has been produced in this way from limestone. In one of these metamorphic processes, liquid magmas were forced into cooler rocks causing reactions which produced the gemstone varieties of emerald, alexandrite, ruby and sapphire. Other gem minerals were formed as a result of the large-scale shearing and crushing of rocks. Examples of these are garnet, andalusite, serpentine, nephrite and jadeite. The manner in which gemstones were produced in nature can therefore be related to the igneous, sedimentary or metamorphic processes of rock formation. A gemstone is normally classified, however, by the type of deposit in which it is found. This is termed the source or occurrence of the gemstone and is either a primary or a secondary deposit. In primary deposits, gemstones are found at the site where they were originally formed. This type of deposit is of particular interest to the mineralogist and geologist as it provides evidence of the method of gemstone formation. Secondary, or sedimentary, deposits have been carried from the place of their formation either by weathering agents such as wind or rain, or by rivers (when they are called alluvial deposits). Evidence of the distances travelled by sedimentary deposits can be seen in their abraded surfaces (e.g. as in water-torn topaz pebbles or the rounded diamond crystals of the Namibian coastline).

10 GEMMOLOGY, THE SCIENCE OF GEM MATERIALS Diamonds (Figure 1.5) differ from the rest of the gem minerals in that they were formed much deeper in the earth's crust. It is thought that diamonds crystallised at least 100 miles below the earth's surface from graphite, carbon dioxide or methane at very high temperatures and pressures. The diamondbearing magma was then driven up to the surface by explosive gas pressure, and solidified to form the present day kimberlite pipes which constitute the world's primary source of diamonds. Fig. 1.5. Rough diamond crystals. From left to right: a triangular twinned 'made', a 'shape*(distortedoctahedron), a 'stone'(octahedron), anda 'cleavage'. (Photo courtesy of De Beers) The tops of the pipes are thought to have originally extended above the surface of the earth as hills, or, in the case of the larger pipes, as mountains. Over hundreds of millions of years, these kimberlite hills were eroded by the weathering action of wind and rain into low-lying hillocks or 'kopjes', the diamonds in them being washed away to form secondary deposits along river beds and marine terraces. The composition and characteristics of gemstones Fortunately for the gemmologist, whose task it is to identify unknown specimens, gem minerals are in general very different

GEMMOLOGY, THE SCIENCE OF GEM MATERIALS 11 from each other in their physical characteristics. These differences are due mainly to their chemical compositions, which can vary from the simple carbon constituent of diamond to the complex boro-silicate compound of tourmaline. One of the qualities principally dependent upon the gemstone's chemical composition is its durability. This can best be seen by grouping the gem minerals into the following four chemical categories: Oxides Carbonates Phosphates Silicates These are generally hard and resistant to chemical attack. Chrysoberyl Corundum Opal Quartz and chalcedony Spinel BeAl2 04 AI2O3 Si02.«H2 0 SÍO2 MgAl204 These are soft and easily attacked by acids. Calcite CaC03 Malachite Cu(OH)2CuC03 Rhodochrosite MnCOa These are soft and not very resistant to acid attack. Apatite Ca5(F,Cl)(P04)3 Turquoise A complex hydrated phosphate of copper and aluminium These are hard and very durable. They represent the majority of gemstones. Beryl Feldspar Garnet Be3Al2(Si03)6 An aluminium silicate in combination with sodium, potassium or calcium. A silicate of various combinations of magnesium, manganese, iron, calcium, aluminium and chromium

12 GEMMOLOGY, THE SCIENCE OF GEM MATERIALS Jadeite Nephrite Peridot Rhodonite Topaz Tourmaline Zircon NaAl(Si03)2 Ca2(Mg,Fe)5(OH)2 (SÍ40ll)2 (Mg,Fe)2 SÍO4 MnSiOa Al2(OH,F)2Si04 A complex boro-silicate of aluminium and alkalis, with iron, calcium, lithium, magnesium, manganese and potassium ZrSi04 Groups, species and varieties Gemstones can also be grouped into species and varieties, the latter differing from each other only in colour or general appearance. An example of this can be seen in ruby and sapphire which are varieties of the mineral species corundum. Quartz is also a mineral species and contains the varieties amethyst, citrine, smoky quartz and rock crystal. All varieties of the same species have the same chemical composition and crystal structure. In mineralogy, there are over two thousand different mineral species. As an aid to classification, these are gathered together into a series of groups, each of which contains species having similar features or characteristics. In gemmology, however, there are only two sets of gemstone species which have enough in common to qualify as groups. These species comprise the feldspar and garnet gemstones. It is easy for the student gemmologist to become confused by the apparently alternative names a gemstone may have under the headings of species and varieties (and sometimes groups). To resolve any ambiguity, those gemstones possessing both a variety and a species name are listed in Table LI, which also shows the relationships in the feldspar and garnet groups.

13 Group feldspar garnet Species beryl chrysoberyl corundum orthoclase microcline plagioclase almandine pyrope grossular andradite spessartite uvarovite opal quartz chalcedony (cryptocrystalline quartz) tourmaline Table LI Variety emerald, aquamarine, morganite (pink), heliodor (yellow), goshenite (colourless) chrysoberyl (yellow, greenish-yellow), alexandrite (red in tungsten light, green in daylight), cymophane (greenishyellow cat's eye) ruby, sapphire (blue, violet, green, yellow, pink, orange, colourless) moonstone, orthoclase (yellow) amazonite (green) oligoclase (yellow), labradorite (multicoloured sheen), sunstone or aventurine (bronze or gold-spangled), albite moonstone (purple/red) (blood red) hessonite (orange/brown, green and pink) massive grossular (jade green) demantoid (green), topazolite (golden yellow) orange, yellow, flame red emerald green white opal, black opal, water opal (colourless with internal iridescence) Mexican fire opal (orange) amethyst, citrine (yellow), rose quartz, rock crystal (colourless), aventurine quartz (green, blue or brown with mica spangles), tiger's eye (yellow/brown), hawk's eye (blue/green), jasper (red/ brown) chalcedony (blue/grey unhanded), agate (curved concentric bands), cornelian (red), Chrysoprase (green), onyx (straight bands) achroite (colourless), indicoute (blue), rubellite (red/pink), schorl (black), tourmaline (green, yellow, brown)

14 GEMMOLOGY, THE SCIENCE OF GEM MATERIALS Use of the hand lens and microscope At the beginning of this chapter, mention was made of the variety of gem testing equipment now available to the gemmologist. Despite the sophistication of these instruments, perhaps the most useful and frequently used of all the gemmologist's 'tools' is the hand lens, or loupe, as it is sometimes called. The optimum magnification factor for a hand lens is 1 Ox, as this is sufficiently powerful to reveal most of a gemstone's identifying features. Lenses having a magnification of 20x or more are available, but their focus is rather critical and their field of view limited, all of which makes them more difficult to use. Image distortion and colour 'fringing' are problems associated with high magnification lens, and even with a lox lens this is a design factor which has to be considered. Fig. 1.6. A selection of hand lenses For this reason, all high quality loupes, particularly those intended for use in diamond grading, are fitted with compound lenses consisting usually of a three-lens element (Figure 1.6). These 'triplet' lenses are corrected for both spherical and chromatic aberration, which are more scientific terms for distortion and colour fringing. The student gemmologist may at first experience difficulty in maintaining focus when using a hand lens. This is because it is necessary to keep the gemstone, the lens and the head quite steady when looking into the stone. The best technique is to

GEMMOLOGY, THE SCIENCE OF GEM MATERIALS 15 hold the lens close to the eye, steadying the hand holding the lens by resting it against the cheek. The gemstone can then be held (preferably in a pair of tweezers) in the other hand, and positioned for best focus. Wavering of the hand holding the tweezers can be prevented by resting it against the hand holding the lens (Figure 1.7). If glasses are worn, the lens should be held in contact with them. Fig. 1. 7. The author demonstrating the method of holding the hand lens and tweezers for maximum steadiness With all loupes, illumination of the stone under inspection plays an important part. The lamp should be adjusted so as to direct light into the side of the gem, any internal features then appearing brightly lit against a relatively dark background. When magnification, mechanical stability or illumination become limiting factors, we must turn to the microscope, which for many gemmologists is, in any case, the preferred instrument.

16 GEMMOLOGY, THE SCIENCE OF GEM MATERIALS The trend towards binocular microscopes has meant that it is now possible to spend extended periods, without strain, in the inspection of a gemstone. While one of the uses of the microscope is in the classification of gemstones, perhaps its most useful function is to discriminate between synthetic and natural gemstones, and to help in the detection of imitation gems. Eyepiece I Viewing tube Prism Box Focus Control Objective Lens Assembly Supplementary Pillar Stone Holder Lens / Immersion Cell -Stage Sub-stage illuminator Fig. 1.8. Sketch showing the components and ray path for one half of a typical stereo microscope. The illuminator in the substage assembly is set for dark-field work