DEVELOPMENT OF ARTS AND CRAFTS FROM 1000 B.C. TO 600 B.C. A STUDY. M.J.P. Rohilkhand University, Bareilly. Thesis. Submitted by.

Transcription

1 DEVELOPMENT OF ARTS AND CRAFTS FROM 1000 B.C. TO 600 B.C. A STUDY M.J.P. Rohilkhand University, Bareilly Thesis Submitted to M.J.P. Rohilkhand University, Bareilly For the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in ANCIENT HISTORY AND CULTURE Supervised by: Dr. U.P. Arora Greek Chair Professor Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi Submitted by Priya Saxena DEPARTMENT OF ANCIENT HISTORY AND CULTURE, M.J.P. ROHILKHAND UNIVERSITY, BAREILLY 2012

2 CERTIFICATE This is to certify that the thesis entitled The Development of Arts and Crafts from 1000 B.C. to 600 B.C. A Study is an original work carried out by Priya Saxena, in the Department of Ancient History and Culture under my guidance. She has fulfilled all the requirements, relating to the ordinance, prescribed under the regulations of the university for submitting the thesis, for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, in the Department of Ancient History and Culture of M.J.P. Rohilkhand University, Bareilly. Date : (Dr. U.P. Arora) Greek Chair Professor

3 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT To convert the object into the subject to be seen by our eyes imagination, Subject knowledge, Proper initiation, firm determination, hard work and accumulation of all above concepts play an important role to achieve the desired aim and to reach the required destination. Although it is a certain facts that Proposals are decided in the world of eternity. Our proposals may be granted, if we analyze and observe these means in a Practical wave of truth and facts, related to the particular concept. The real picture of these proposals seems to be finalize in their real shapes on this earth of different views by some special creations of God who may be our Parents, Our Teachers, Our friends and any other near and dear helping us as our guide and well wisher to proceed further and to reach the approach. These special creations of God make our mind competent and bring us in the magic world of different colours to fulfill these blank but proposed pictures. Regarding my thesis, Thank you sounds so formal and inadequate when I wish to express my deepest gratitude to the most valuable guidance provided by my esteemed guide Dr. U.P Arora. He not only shepherded me so deftly through the maze of research but also taught me to sift wheat from the chaff. How to convert the seemingly meaningless data into meaningful information and how to turn that meaningful information into a powerful vehicle to arrive at my conclusions, nobody else could have taught me better. On my painstakingly long and arduous

4 journey, his kindly, soothing and presence never deserted me. It would possibly not cover the magnitude of his kindness, patience and help to extended to me. I am very thankful to the Ex. Head of the dept. of Ancient History and Culture, M.J.P Rohilkhand University, Bareilly, Dr. R.P Yadev and A.k Sinha sir for providing me the valuable suggestions which were helpful in my thesis. I am greatly indebted to the present Head of the dept. Dr. Abhey kumar Singh and my other teachers Dr. Shayam Bihari Lal, Dr. B.B. Yadev, and Dr. Pankaj Sharma for providing me the valuable suggestions. I express my deepest sense of gratitude to Dr. Anoop Ranjan Mishra for their constructive guidance and encouragement which have made this work well documented. I am extremely grateful to Prof. J.N. Pal, Allhabad University, Allhabad and Prof. R.C. Takran, Delhi University, Delhi for their enlightening discussions that were a part of my thesis. I also thanks to Dr. Aparna Mathur (Assit. Professor in North Eastern Hill University, Shillong) and Dr. Renu Shukla (Department of Ancient Indian History, Culture and Archaeology, K.G.M, Dehradun) has been a great source of inspiration for initiation of this work and throughout the period of study. She never turned me down whenever I needed her help on a short notice. I express my most genuine and sincere gratitude to both of them. I am particularly thankful to Arora aunty for her kind co-operation and familiar attitude. My heartfelt thanks to the library of National Museum, A.S.I., I.C.H.R., J.N.U at New Delhi, A.S.I. Dehrdun, Gurukul Kangri University, Haridwar, Farook Collage, (Kozikode,Kerala) and Rohilkhand University, Bareilly for providing me access to the world of books and relevant material.

5 I would like to special thanks to Mr. Rajeev Pandey and Mr. Neeraj Verma, ASI, Dehradun. I am thankful to Dr. Dilip (Assistant Professor, Gurukul Kangri Vishwavidyalaya, Haridwar), for his valuable assistance, my senior colleagues at Kanya Gurukul Mahavidyalaya Campus, Dehradun Dr. Neha Datta, Dr.Prena, and other staff faculties. In connection with the present study, I consulted the National Museum, New Delhi, Gurukul Kangari University Museum, Haridwar and Panchala Museum in Rohilkhand University, Bareilly. I am grateful to the authorities and staff of these Museums and Institutions for allowing me to study the material. I wish to express my grateful thanks to ICHR, New Delhi for granting me research scholarship. My sincere thanks to Kulpreet Kaur, Dr. Deepak not only treated me like younger sister but always encouraged me with their kind and positive words. I shall be failing in my duty if I do not thank to my husband Mr. Mohit, and my child Aanya. I have no words to express my gratitude and indebtedness to my mother, Inlaws and friends, who always encouraged me to achieve the desired goal. Ms. Monika typed out the manuscript and Mr. Manoj Kumar Gupta (Typing Zone) Suresh Sharma Nagar, Bareilly helped me in typed stage of this work. My sincere gratitude to both of them. Priya Saxena

6 ABBREVIATIONS AA Aitareya Aranyaka AB Aitareya Brāhmaņa AHNE The Ancient History of the Near-EASt AI Ancient India AN Anguttara Nikāya Ap. DS Āpastamba Dharma Sútra Ap. GS Āpastamba Gŗhya Sútra Asta Astādhyāyí ASI Archaeological Survey of India As. SS Āśvalāyana Śrauta Sútra AV Atharva Veda Br. Brāhmaņa BU Brḥadāryanḳa Upanisad Ch. Chapter CU Chāndogya Upaniśhad DN Digha Nikáya Ed. Editior Eng. Tr. English translation GB Gopātha Brahmana Govt. Government Hindi tr. Hindi Translation IA Indian Aechaeology (A review) I. Ant. Indian Antiguary IHQ Indian Historical Quarterly JBORS Journal of the Bihar and Orissa Research

7 JBRS Journal of the Bihar Research Society JAOS Journal of the American Oriental Society JIH Journal l of Indian History JNSI Journal of the Numismatic Society of India JBAI Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute JRAS Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society JUB Jaiminiya Upanisad Brāhmaņa KA Kautilya Arthasastra KS Kathaka Samḥitā KU Kausịtaki Upanisad KSS Kātyāyana Śrauta Sútra KU Katha Upanisad MS Maitrayaņí Samḥitā Mundaka Up Mundaka Upanisad MU Mandukya Upanisad OCP Ochre Coloured Pottery PAI Potteries in Ancient India PB Pancavimsa Brāhmaņa Pd. Period PGW Painted Grey Ware PGS Pāraskara Gŗhya Sútra Proc. Proceedings. SB Śatapatha Brāhmaņa Sad.Br Sadvinsa Brāhmaņa TA Taittiríya Aranyaka TB Taittiríya Brāhmaņa Tr. Translation

8 TS TU VI Vinaya Vol. VS Taittiríya Samḥitā Taittiríya Upanisad Vedic Index Vinaya Pitaka Volume Vajasaneyi Samḥitā

9 CONTENTS Chapter Topic Page No. No. I Introduction: Source Material, Preview of Previous 1-22 Work, Present Approach. II State Formation and Urbanization in Ganga Valley III Trade and Commerce IV Arts and Crafts A Brief Survey V Metal VI Textile VII Beads VIII Potteries & Terracottas IX Miscellaneous & Other Craft X Conclusion Appendix Bibliography Map Plate

10 INTRODUCTION The history of artistic advancement of the Vedic people may be started with an examination of sources in which many enormous examples were mentioned. The region of the Kuru Pañchāla (The fertile land of Western U.P., Haryana and Modern Delhi) provides us legendry accounts of archaeology. In Geographical terms this area covers the Indo-Gangetic divide and upper Gangetic plains. The Indo Gangetic divide, if the northern most portion of the Bari doab is included in it, is about 35,0000 sq. miles. The soil of the plains of Punjab and Haryana is generally alkaline, which helps to preserve organic and inorganic material including iron artifacts. The whole region has thrown valuable light on various aspects of life of Vedic Āryans. The region figured among the sixteen great political units called Mahājanapadas into which the whole country was divided at the dawn of the historical period 1. The compilation of the later Vedic literature was the most glorious epoch in the history of Pañchāla. The advent of iron marks the technological advancement which was affected the agricultural pursuits, mode of production and material perspective of Vedic economy. The archaeological aspects of the Kuru-Pañchāla region is marked by the presence of the Painted Grey Ware 2 (PGW) which could be describe as the Kuru- Pañchāla ware because this area is its epicenter. Stability in the settlement pattern of Vedic Āryans must be changed the economic life of later Vedic people. From the archaeological point of

11 view, PGW and NBP deposits can largely be utilized for the study of material and cultural development of the people during this period. Besides agriculture, the discovery of iron and growing arts and crafts played a prominent role in growth and development of Vedic Āryans. On the basis of obtainable data and sources the present study highlights the progression in agrarian economy, emergence of territorial kingdom and various craft behabiour in the period of 1000 B.C. to 600 B.C. The early Indian literature is typically religious in character, but references can be gleaned as to the state of contemporary arts and crafts. Archeology has thrown helpful light on the various aspects of material life of northern India. Consequently, Archaeology has proved to be a corresponding source of evidence for this study. While literature has revealed and filled up the gaps which archeology had left open. In the later Vedic manuscript we can see a transformation of religious conception, the elimination of old and configuration of new collection. The gradual transition from nomadic and cattle breeding life to settle life employed in agriculture and the coming up of a new class order which replace the old aristocratic social constitution.

12 Literary Sources:- The Vedic texts compiled between 1000 and 500 B.C. i.e., the Samḥitās other then R gveda have special significance in so far as they were largely complied in western Uttar Pradesh. R gveda is the collection of 1028 hymns divided into ten mandalas or books. Most of hymns are prayers addressed to the various gods, they contain such a large number of allusions to the surrounding customs, manner, belief and even the events and the personages of the age 3. The R gveda is supplemented by three other Vedas, namely the Sāmveda, the Yajurveda and the Atharvaveda, containing nominally the knowledge requisite for three different kind of priests officiating at sacrifice respectively the sāman or udgātri, the adhavarya and the atharvan or añgira (fire priest 4 ). The later Vedic literature generally covers the period from 1000 B.C. to 600 B.C. The Sāmveda has importance of the first text in the history of Indian music. The hymns of this Veda are recited specially at the samāyāga. The praises of god who are supposed to honour the ceremony with their presence and prayers for the prosperity of the worshiper and are the main subject of these hymns 5. Though, it is not much significant for the historians. The Yajurveda is one of the most important and informative part of literature for studying different accounts of economic life of the later Vedic people. The Yajurveda consists of two different texts, the Black (krṣṇạ) Yajurveda and the White (śukla) Yajurveda. There are three recessions of the krṣṇạ Yajurveda, namely Taittiríya, Maitrayaņí, and Kathaka samḥitās.

13 The characteristic features of the black Yajurveda are mantras or verses. These contain explanation and discussion of the ritual as part of which the mantras were to be uttered 6. The White Yajurveda survives in only the Vājesneyí Samḥitā. There are fourty chapters in this text. The Atharvaveda is a late addition of the trayi, the three Vedas namely the R gveda, Sāmveda and Yajurveda. It derives its name from a person named Atharvan who was the first priest who produces or invented fire by attrition 7. It is divided into 20 books which contain 6000 hymns.the Atharvaveda is the oldest monuments of Indian medicine. Along with it consist prayers, formula and charms for protection against evils sprits, beast and other harmful elements. The book contains reference to the life of common people from the cradle to grave 8. The Brāhmaņa texts have considerable importance from the viewpoint of social and religious information of this period. The R gveda belongs to Aitereya Brāhmaņa and the Kausịtaki Brāhmaņa. These are written in prose or partly in verse and contain the formula of performing sacrifice. These are eight Brāhmaņa tests are attached to the Sāmveda such as Pañchvimśa Brāhmaņa, the Sadạvim śa, the Chāndogya Brāhmaņa, Jaiminíya Brāhmanạ, Sāmavidhāna, Devatādhayāyana, Arsẹya and Vamṣa Brāhmaņa.The first four are important from the historical point of view and rest are the only index of Sāmaveda. To the Black Yajurveda belongs the Taittiríya Brāhmaņa. It castes a supplement to the Taittiríya Sam ḥitā and is concerned with a few sacrifices. To the white Yajurveda belongs the Śatapatha Brāhmaņa and it consists of one hundred adhayāyas. The Śatapatha Brāhmaņa belongs to the Vajasneyí Samhitā. To the Atharvaveda belongs the Gopāth Brāhmaņa which is divided in to two parts namely, Púrva and Uttara.

14 Other next important works in the Vedic literature is the Āranỵakas or forest books.their main concerns are theosophic character, and deal with the mysticism and symbolism of sacrifice. They are found at the end of the Brāhmaņas and from a transition to the Upanisạd 9. The three important Āranạyakas are Aitareya, Kaus ítaki and Taittiríya. The first two are attached with the R gveda, while Taittiríya Āranạyaka is attached with the Yajurveda. The Brḥadāryanḳa Upanisạd is the part of the Śatapatha Brāhmaņa. The Jaminiya and the Chāndogya have also considered as Āranỵakas. The Upanisạds are very informative source of the Vedic literature for studying the material and cultural life of the people. There are thirteen Vedic Upanisạds which are closely related to the Brāhmaņas. These Upanisạds are Aitareya, Kausịtaki, Chāndogya, Kena, Taittiríya, Katḥa, Śvetāśvatara, Maitrayaņí, Brḥadāryanḳa, Iśa, Munḍạka, Praśna, and Mānḍụkya Upanisạd. Max Mullar suggest that like other Vedic text the Upanisạd maintain a place in the literature of the world as some of the most astounding productions of human mind in any age and in any country 10. It may be stated that the study of later Vedic economy remain partial without Nighanṭu literature. The Nighanṭu contains three section divided into five chapter but for the purpose of present study, its first four chapter are useful. The Brāhmaņas are two sets of text which were later held to constitute Vedenta the end of the Veda in the sense of constituting both the final part of the Vedic corpus and the final aim of Veda as knowledge. The Vedic literature was followed by six Vedan gas viz. Siksha (phonetics), Kalpa (ritual), Vyākarana (grammar), Nirukta (etymology), Chandas (matrics), and Jyotiśa (astronomy).

15 A large part of Vedic literature comprises the Sútra texts, Sútra meaning thread whence a rule stated in abbreviated form presumably for easy memorization 11. The Kalpa Sútra is the most important which is divided into four classes, the Śrauta Sútras, the Grhya, Sútras, the Dharma Sútras and the Sulva Sútra. The Brāhmaņa texts are the source books of the Śrauta Sútras which deal with the Śrauta sacrifice. The Gŗhya Sútra connected with domestic rituals and discussed the socio-religious and economic life of Vedic period. The Dharma Sútras deal with policy and directive of religious and secular law. The four important Dharma Sútras are Gautamā, Baudhāyana, Āpastamba and Vaśisṭḥa. The Púran as corresponds the authentic convention tradition in the history of Vedic literature. They are sectarian works, the common feature of most of them is the record of the ancient Āryan ruling dynasties. There are 18 Pūran ạs viz. include, Brahma, Vayu, Matsya, Brāhmanḍa, Vishnu, Bhagavla, Garuda, Agni, Padma, Linga, Kurma, Markandeya, Bhavisya, Narada, Brahmavaivarta, Varaha, Vamā na and Skanda. They afford us for greater insight into all aspects and phases of hindusim. Its mythology, its idol worship, its theism and pantheism, its love of god, its philosophy and its superstition, its festivals and ceremonies and its ethics than any other work 12. For the study of the later Vedic civilization, the importance of the epics cannot be ignored. This has a paramount significance as a source material. The chronological stratification of the Mahābhārata is still uncertain. It is difficult to us the materials drawn from the Mahābhārata for one particular period, for its narrative portion looks back to as early as the tenth century B.C.

16 The Buddhist Literature:- The historical importance early Buddhist literature may be assertained for the study of later Vedic economy. The Buddha preached his teaching at the end of later Vedic period and he vehemently criticised the performance of the Vedic sacrifices, authenticity of the Vedas, superiority of the Brāhmanạs and the Varnạ organization based on birth 13.The Anguttara Nikāya mentions the sixteen great political units called Mahājanapadas 14. Other Buddhist text tells us about the material life just after the termination of the Vedic period. With the emergence of new cities and towns, growth and development in all spheres of life took place as the advent of iron, the use of metallic coins facilities for the growth of the agriculture economy and trade and commerce. All these changes have been recorded in the Buddhist literature. The foreign literature should be utilized for the knowledge of Vedic economy and cultural contacts. In this respect the Iranian and Persian literature are very informative source material. The languages of these literatures are closely related to the R gveda (Indigenous text). The Avesta is the sacred book of the Āryans of Iran who were a branch of Indo-Europeans. The Avestan test shows a clear sign of a structure. The oldest part of the Avesta comprises in the Gathas, are set of 17 hymns whice were composed by Zarathushtra. It was in materical form like the Ŗgvedic hymns 15. The lraian Mithras (Vedic mitra) remained one of their main gods. The fire worship and the cult of Soma are a common inheritance in both of them 16. The Vedic Yamā and Avestic Yima played a common role. The Vedic Āryans had cultural and commercial contact with the other contemporary cultures undoubtly the similarities and resemblence of

17 both culture have been noticed. The institutions, customs and ways of thought of the Vedic and the Avestan people are so similar that there can be no doubt the two cultures are very closely related 17. Archaeological Sources:- A culture is characterized by a number of technological aspects such as agriculture, handmade and wheel made pottery, use of metals in various fields and other craft materials. Archaeology represents the exact data about the chronology, techniques and other authentic and well defined records from the discovered materials. The objectivity of history are dependent upon the archaeological aspects. The various late Harappan cultures had long rather undistinguished innings that took them even beyond 1500 B.C. Undoubtedly, these great cultures have continuous development. As the late Harappan cultures were emerged into a new culture known as a Painted Grey Ware culture. Painted Grey Ware is a fine wheel made, well-fired grey pottery on which pattern in lines and dots were painted with black pigment before firing 18. The PGW sites are spread over a vast area, measuring about 1400 km from west to east and about 900 km. from North to south. About 850 PGW sites have been discovered in this area. The main concentration of this ware is in the western part of the Ganga Yamuna doab and in the immediate west of this region. The distribution of PGW cultural assemblage has been recovered from various PGW sites. Ahichchhatra:- Ahichchhatra is the capital of North Panchala. This site has been excavated by K.N. Dikshit. The PGW culture was first indentified from

18 Ahichchhatra in Bareilly district in The PGW was reported from the lower level (IX stratum) of the excavated sites. Atranjíkhera:- This is the most important site of the PGW, situated in Etah district, excavated by R.C. Gaur. Atranjíkhera has yielded a calibrated radiocarbon date of 1034 B.C. from the mid PGW levels 20. Among the other significant findings, Atranjíkhera have yielded a good number of iron objects associated with PGW culture. Hasitnapur:- After the discovery of PGW at Ahichchhatra, systematic excavation were carried out at over 30 sites near Delhi, which are either explicitly named in the Mahābhārata or believed by local tradition to be associated with the epics 21. Significantly PGW was discovered at all of them, providing reliable circumstantial evidence that PGW considered the hallmark of the later Vedic Āryans 22. Hastināpur is situated in Mawana Tehsil of district Meerut excavated in during under the direction of Brij Basi Lal. Five occupational levels have been revealed from Hastināpur with a definite gap between the periods. After a small gap, the site was re inhabited by the PGW people 23. Allhapur 24 :- Sri K.N. Dikshit and Dr. Romila Thapar was excavated Allahpur site which is situated in Meerut district. Period IA is representing the PGW habitation. PGW occur even during the IB period without any deterioration in fabric and shape. However the occurrence of PGW

19 throughout the phase confirmed a longer duration of the PGW then hitherto imagined 25. Aalamgirpur 26 :- There are other sites such as Ropar and Aalamgirpur situated in Meerut district (Uttar Pradesh) on the bank of river Hindon, a tributary of the Yamuna. There is a distinct gap between the late Harappan and PGW layers. This suggests that Harappan had abandoned these sites before the PGW people occupied the mounds 27. Bhagwanpura:- From Bhagwanpura (Kurukshtra district, Haryana) and Dadhri (Ludhiyana district), PGW is interlocked with late Harappan culture and suggesting a smooth transition 28. The Bhagwanpura site was excavated by Mr. J.P. Joshi, who claims that continuity has been noticed in the cultural remains in pottery as well as in painted designs 29. Both these sites present the PGW before the Iron Age. Sravasti:- Sravasti is situated on the boundary of Gonda Baharaich district of Uttar Pradesh. The site of Ujjain lies in the Garh Kalika mound of the ancient Ujjayani in Madhya Pradesh. From these sites PGW does not occur in an independent horizon but it is mixed with the subsequent NBP ware. A beautiful form of PGW reported in a limited number 30. Sardargarh:- Sardargarh is small village site situated in Suratgarh in Bikaner district. There are four ancient mounds at Sardargarh. The site was inhabited by the PGW people for a long time.

20 The Trial trenches were dug in 1955 at the Purana Qila mound in Delhi; it is to be believed the site of Indraprastha. PGW was recovered from lower level of the mound. After the three session excavation during a few sherds of PGW have been found. While, the work was unsuccessful to reveal a regular PGW horizon. Thapli:- The discovery in Garhwal was made at Thapli which is situated on the right bank of river Alaknanda in Tehri Garhwal 2 km south west of Srinagar across the river. The excavation at this site revealed a single phase culture of PGW along with its associate types in other wares and related material 31. Mathura 32 :- Mathura was well known for its importance. The Painted Grey Ware was collected from Mathura. Here, PGW sherds are picked up at the vast Katra mound. The early Painted Grey Ware deposit as Mathura is represented by lower most three layers 33. Noh 34 :- The excavations conducted at Noh in Baratpura district by the department of Archeology, Rajasthan have revealed, fairly rich deposit of Painted Grey Ware. It yields a separate phase of B and R ware which lies above the OCP and below the PGW deposits. Khalaua 35 :- This site is situated in khalaua village 16km from Agra. The mound is locally known as Gwal Khera. Among the new features of PGW at this site are the motifs like criss cross and a leaf filled with parallel hatching.

21 Jakhera 36 :- The site of Jakhera locally known as Kusak, in Etah district, is located on the left bank of the Kalinadi, in the North-West of Kasganj tehsil.the site was excavated in , and by M.D.N.Sahi.The occupational deposit at the site have been classified in four fold culture as OCP, BRW, PGW and NBPW. The excavation revealed the interrelationship between the BRW and PGW and detailed information regarding the material life of the PGW people. Abhipur:- The ancient site of Abhipur is located one km west of the village Abhipur, about 1.5 km east site flows the river deoha, in district Pilibhit 37. Although four habitational deposits of cultural periods are noticed at this site namely as OCW, BRW, PGW and NBPW.The site is excavated by the dept. of Ancient history and culture of M.J.P. Rohilakhand University in The excavation work was completed in three sessions as , , and Kauśāmbi 38 :- The prominent site of Kauśāmbi was situated in Kosamgaon of Majhenpur tehsil located in the Allhabad district.the ruins of Kosambi was found from the left bank of Yamuna.The region was far from 35 miles South West from Allhabad.Kosambi was the capital of Vats Janapada in 6 th c.b.c. Kosambi was excavated from 1949 to by G.R. Sharma. The cultural sequence recovered from here as pre PGW, PGW (Associated ware BRW and RW), NBPW, post NBPW cultures.

22 Although the chronology of PGW culture was still uncertain. From various excavated sites different dates were suggested by the excavators. As, from Hastinapura B.B. Lal has suggested 1100 B.C. to 600 B.C. date of PGW culture. From 1000 B.C. to 700 B.C. was decided on the basis of Ropar excavation. From the Kosambi excavation, PGW was dated as 885 B.C. While D.K. Chakrabarti has been mentioned 800 B.C. date for PGW culture. R.C. Gaur has been suggested that PGW culture was started from 1200 B.C. Thus it can be ascertained that PGW culture was persisting about 1000 B.C. to 600 B.C. in Gangtic Plain. The PGW culture was covered the western part India as Uttar Pradesh, Haryana and Punjab. Generally most of the sites are located on the bank of river, thus all these sites have brought to light various aspects of PGW culture as social, religious and economic. Material Objects:- From the excavations of the PGW sites various types of objects have been unearthed. These numerous objects shed light on the material culture and economic prospects of the PGW period. Besides this, all objects help in reconstructing the history of their cultural and commercial contacts with other world through trade. Material evidence suggests that the inhabitant of PGW sites were pastoral agriculturists. The PGW people used the pottery with its highly evolved techniques of manufacture showing an excellent fabric, firing and finish. Allchins called it a `hallmark` of this cultural period 39. The Painted Grey Ware culture marks the advent of the Iron Age in India. It seems, they possessed an advanced technical knowledge in the field of metallurgy. Copper technology was learnt with all its complex

23 techniques during this phase 40. A large number of implements and tools available from the discovery of sites prove the popularity of metal techniques. Beads, Terracottas, stone, glass and miscellaneous objects have been unearthed. Certain objects represent the complete picture of the socioeconomic life of Vedic Āryans. Preview of Previous Works:- Subsequently, the work on Vedic people and their socio-cultural history have been published by prominent historian. Concerning the aspects of arts and crafts of later Vedic period numerous work have come to light for the study of the different material perspective of the contemporary societies. The prominent historian K.M. Srimali in his book, The History of Pañchāla incorporated the sources for evaluating the geography, the ethnography and arts of the Pañchāla region. On the basis of combined testimony of literary and archeological sources. In the book, The Arts and Crafts in Northern India, Neelima Dahiya has tried to make such studies and thereby understand the developmental procedure and techniques used in arts and crafts stuffs. The author states that the changes that have taken place in northern India (Upto to Narmada and the Vindhyas) from stone age to Mauryan have been analyzed by examining the development of various new industries such as stone, pottery, bone and ivories, metallurgy, sculptural art, rock painting and engraving seal, beads, coins and textiles etc. The Later Vedic Economy of B.P Roy is the complete structural frame work of the origin and development of later Vedic economy.

24 Rajesh Kochhar presents a unbiased approach in his book, The Vedic People, their History and Geography. His ideological remarks are notably different from the slew of revisionist rewritings. The author marks the adventurous and potentially hazardous theories. He puts us back on the compact ground of facts and their accounts. B.P. Sinha s Potteries in Ancient India has been a popular textbook. Although the author present remarkable synthesis of specialized writing on the potteries. It is multi pronged reconstruction of vexed problems is quite thought provoking. The analytical examination on the techniques, characteristics and significance of OCP, PGW and NBPW wares have been observed in this book. R.C. Gaur has provided the Painted Grey Ware (ed.) a valuable source material book for Painted Grey Ware analysis. The author represent a definite number of original hypotheses which are consists in many areas. Vibhba Tripathi in her book, The Painted Grey Ware, An Iron Age culture in Northern India published in 1976 underlines the characteristics features of the region covered by the distribution of the Painted Grey Ware culture. According to her PGW culture seems to have introduced iron in Northern India. She examined the question whether the metallic tools were ample to make some impact on socio-economic life of the phase. The author observed that the chronology of PGW and NBPW also coincides. She throws light on this problem by the study of cultural material, found in the respective period. The early use of iron in India of D.K. Chakrabarti imprint in 1992 defines the beginning of iron in early historic India. The extensive distribution of iron ores in the Indian subcontinent is evident. In one of his articles titled as Iron and Urbanization published in 1985 in Purrātattva No. 15.

25 He has tried to fall out that the beginning of iron technology did not play a causative role in the early Historic India. Although, the iron technology has not been sustain it. Influenced by the archaeometallurgy in India B.P.Sahu presented a book entitled as Iron and Social change in Early India published in This is a well-liked book with the information of latest researches on the subject. The issues has to be evaluated on the basis of evidence is whether the use of iron in India led to a qualitively different economy and society. What was the impact of iron on the society? How iron changed the socio-economic structure of Indian history? In 1971, D.P. Agrawal in his book entitled as Copper Bronze age in India offered the significant role of metal in ancient India. R.S. Sharma in his book Material Culture and Social Formation in Ancient India (1983) presented that in ancient time metallurgy and other techniques took centuries to spread and produce results of any great social consequence. Dr. Sharma s other book is Urban decay in India. Perspective in social and economical history of Early India and Ancient India have a better balance between theory and practice than most of books on other subjects. Along with these books of prominent historian various articles are published in a joūrnạls and periodicals. These articles are based on researches in field such as metal and metallurgy, pottery, terracotta, beads and other crafts and artistic material which shed light on the socio-religious and economic prospects of ancient Vedic natives. Present Approach:- Reconstruction of the past is an important part of the exercise of nation building 41. The present work examines the history of later Vedic period

26 with all possible evidence and tries to synthesize it into a well developed stage of economy. The development in various existing and other technical industries and the emergence of cities and towns creates an excellent environment for urban economy. Arts and crafts played a distinguish role in the state formation and urbanization. But in the present study stress has been given that what was the authentic phenomena of industries, territories and state formation in the development of urbanism.archaeology furnished different kind of objects and material in finished and semi-finished form and a close study of these mute objects of hoary antiquities enable us to understand the development of arts and crafts and the techniques implicated there in. The story of continuity and development of the arts and crafts has been traced from the period of present study. This work will be throwing invaluable light on the imperative aspects of arts and crafts with an examination of diverse finds. The excavation reveals the facts weather the chronology of PGW and NBPW will be coincides or is there any co-relation between the late Harappan and PGW? Was urbanization a revolution or a gradual development? What was the role of Iron and craft materials in socio-economic phenomena? What were the reasons behind the decline of a prominent metal of first urbanization? How they contributed in the advancement and development of PGW culture? The analytical studies of PGW sites will be present through this research work. In this study, the reseacher selected the arts and crafts industry of 1000 B.C. to 600 B.C. The excavated sites revealed the facts of a long back history of developed arts and crafts industries. While the researcher

27 has probed only the data collected from the period of 1000 B.C. to 600 B.C. in Northern India. The important factor of research is the examination of source material both literary and Archaeology. The work is divided into ten chapters included Introduction. The II chapter deals with the State Formation in Ganga Valley. The early Vedic age was the age of war and pastoralism but later Vedic age was an age of agriculturists who were leading passive and advanced lives. The commencement of town towards the end of this period is suggested by such words as town (nagara) or town deweller (nagarin). The excavation proves the existence of at least three towns in Ganga valley like Ahichchhtra, Kauśāmbi and Hastināpura. The Trade and Commerce in later Vedic age will be discussing in the third chapter. The R gveda refers two classes of traders namely the Panịs and vanịj. They formed a part of Vaiśya class therefore they were devoted to production and trade and commerce. During the later Vedic period trade became a specialized profession of the Vaiśyas. The sites of PGW may help us in tracing out a communication line. The means of transport played an important role in the development of trade and commerce. The fourth chapter will examine the development of arts and crafts. The general term for arts and crafts was śilpa. The śilpa employed by human being were numerous such as ivory, weaving, gold smithy, ceramic craft, smith and carriage making. The flourishing arts and crafts industries made significant contribution in the later Vedic economy and material progress. The fifth chapter deals with metal craft. The introduction of iron in PGW period is a rebellion. Several terms occurred for iron in later Vedic

28 literature as śyāma, śyāmayas and loha (?). The entire segment of Śatapatha Brāhmanạ is devoted to rites associated with ploughing. Archaeology furnished valuable data for the study of different kinds of metal and its technologies. In the sixth chapter textiles industry of later Vedic age will be discussed. Weaving of cloth was considered to be a very useful job, for it resulted in material prosperity of the weaver and ensured his sound economy condition. In the post Vedic times this art was much developed, as is evident from literary texts. The seventh chapter deals with the beads industry different kinds of ornaments mostly necklace and earrings were made of beads. Varieties of material such as wood, clay, bones, stones and metals were used to make beads. Their varied shapes comprise square, rectangular, cylindrical, globular, biconal, hexagonal, lobular and pyramidal. Such beads have been discovered from various PGW sites. The beads of ghāţa shaped and short blunt edged bicone, circular beads are noteworthy. Beads help in studying the economic prospects of people who used them. In the eight we will discuss the contribution of potteries and terracottas. The pottery with its highly evolved technique of manufacture showing an excellent fabric, firing and finish occupies a significant place in proto historic period called as Painted Grey Ware. It is such a distinctive ceramics that the Allchins called it a Hallmark of this cultural period. Terracotta was the material which was used for making objects such as animal figurines, bird figurines, human figurines, several ornamental objects like bangles, reels, beads, amulets and, pendants etc as well as discs, household objects have been profusely fashioned in terracottas.

29 The chapter IX deals with other miscellaneous arts and crafts of Vedic period. The chapter X deals with all important facts and findings discovered and analyzed in whole research work. It is the resolving component of thesis.

30 REFERENCES 1. Srimali, K.M., History of Panchala, A Study Vol I, New Delhi, p Ibid p Bhargava P.L., India in the Vedic Age, p-6 Lucknow, Habib Irfan and V. K Thakur, The Vedic Age and the Coming of Iron c B.C, p-36, New Delhi Roy, B.P., The Later Vedic Economy p-13, Patna (1984) 6. Habib Irfan and V.K Thakur, op.cit. p Roy, B.P., op.cit., p Ibid p Bhargava P.L., op.cit., p Max Muller. F., SBE, Vol. I, p. 1xvii 11. Habib, Irfan, op.cit., p Roy B.P., op.cit., p Kosambi, D.D., An Introduction to the Study of Indian History, p A.N., I, p.213; IV, p Kochhar, Rajesh, The Vedic People, There History and Geography, p.31, New Delhi. 16. Roy, B.P. op.cit., p Kochhar Rajesh op.cit., p Ibid, p I.A.R, , p and A.I. No, Gaur, R.C., Excavation at Atranjíkhera, 1983, p A.I., No.10-11, p Lal, B.B, ( ), Excavation at Hastināpura and other explorations in the upper Ganga and Satluj basin. A.I , P.7

31 23. Triphati, Vibha, The Painted Grey Ware An Iron Age Culture of Northern India, (1975), p I.A.R., , P Dikshit, K.N., (1973),` The Allahpur evidence and the Painted Grey Chronology` in D.P Agrawal and A. Ghosh (Ed.) Radiocarbon and Indian Archaeology P I.A.R., Kochhar, Rajesh, op.cit., p Joshi, J.P., Excavation at Bhagwanpura, , p Triphati Vibha, op.cit., p I.A.R., , P Khan A.A. and Dubay U.S., A Study of river terraces of Ganga river complex in Garhwal Himalaya, Man and Environment Vol.VI, p.6-12, I.A.R, , p Gaur R.C., Painted Grey Ware (Seminar Procceding),p I.A.R, , p I.A.R, Sahi, M.D.N.,(1990) Excavations at Jakhera : An Interim Report, Adaptation and Other Essays, (ed.) Ghosh and Chakrabarti, Santiniketan, psp Arora U.P., A.K. Verma, Anoop Mishra, Excavation of Abhaipur (A Painted Grey Ware Site), Purratattva. 32, p Allchins, R and B., The Birth of Indian Civilization, p Tripathi, Vibha, op.cit., p Kochhar, Rajesh, op.cit., p.xiii

32 STATE FORMATION AND URBANIZATION IN GANGA VALLEY In the later Vedic texts we find a transformation of religious conception but the relation of the Āryans with the native population, the elimination of old and formation of new tribes, the gradual transition from nomadic and the pastoral life to settled life employed in agriculture, and the coming up of a new class order which replaced the aristocratic social structure were important factors for the correct evaluation of the Vedic people 1. Brāhmaņa texts refer to regular summer raids of the Kuru-Pañchālas in the east 2. The R gveda furnishes valuable information regarding the territory occupied by the early Vedic Āryans. The early Vedic Āryans settled between krumu (Kurram), Gomatí (Gomal) and Kubhā (Kabul) rivers in the west and the Sindhu group of rivers in the east. In the later Vedic texts it records that scene of activities of the Vedic people was shifted to Ganga valley towards the east.the ancient land of Kuru Pañchāla region corresponding roughly to present western and central Uttar Pradesh. It was the heartland of the main activities of the Āryan culture age. Their further expansion in the east had taken place and the kingdom of Kośala, Kasi and Vedeha were established. The expansion of many tribes and kingdom towards the north of the Ganga was spread widely. Few kingdoms were situated towards the south of Ganga 3. Expansion in the Gangetic Valley was mainly a matter of clearing forest and founding agricultural settlements 4.The extensive use of iron

33 facilitated the clearance of jungle on a large scale and intensification of surplus wealth which was accompanied by the development of trade industry and handicrafts. Agriculture:- The importance of agriculture can be accessed from the story of king Janaka s ploughing the land. Knowledge of cultivation seems to have made considerable progress 5. The Samḥitās and the Brāhmaņas speak of the different seasons for the different grains and also of the two seasons of harvest. The Brḥadāryanḳa Upanisạd mentions ten kinds of grains 6, viz rice (vrihi). barley (yava) seasum (tila), beans (māsa), pancium milicum and italinm (anupriyāngauah), wheat (gadhūma) lentils (masura), pulses (khaluah) and vetches or delichos uniflorus (khalakula-kulattha). (wheat) Śyāmaka (Millet), Masura (lentil) til (sesame) khalva (Múng) and other identified grains such as anu, amba, gavidhuta, or gavedhuka nambe sasya 7. Thus an improved knowledge of cultivation coupled with the use of effective implements enabled with the peasants to produce more surpluses thereby leading to the emergence of towns in this period 8. The excavation at Hastināpura and Noh brought to light the remains of rice (Oriza Sativa) from PGW level. At Atranjíkhera rice, wheat (traticum compactum) and barley were found 9. In the Vedic literature, there is numerous reference to cultivation from which we find that there were four stages of operation, viz; (1) ploughing the field, (2) sowing of seeds, (3) harvesting ripe corn and (4) threshing and separating the straws from corn. In The Śatapatha Brāhmaņa entire section is devoted to the rites, commented with all these stages 10.

34 The description of yoking four, six, eight, twelve and twenty oxen clearly indicates the practice of deep ploughing 11. In Atharvaveda there is description of some sickle like implement as sune used for reaping. The metal tools like sickle, hoe, socketed, plain axes and ploughshares etc were used for agricultural productivity but to what extent did iron play significant role in the urbanization and agricultural productivity 12. However Sharma observes that PGW people practices field agriculture but iron does not seem to have played any significant role in it 13. Chakrabarty is of the opinion that iron did make the already existing structure economically more productive but he is not prepared to ascribe any revolutionary role to it in social change 14. It has been also emphasized that the agricultural base of the Gangetic valley was laid down by the pre-iron formers and that no important new crop was aided after the introduction of iron. Iron played a significant role in urbanization of early historic India and it is proved by literary and archaeological records. It is recorded in the Śatapatha Brāhmaņa the use of plough drawn by twenty-four oxen. The plough is described as paviravant or Pavarivam in the later Vedic texts 15. The archaeological evidence of greatly enhanced agricultural produce comes from a variety of iron implements including ploughshare 16, sickle 17, hoe chopper etc. discovered from Atranjíkhera, Katia, Kampil and other sites. The finding of iron ploughshare from at Jakhera with other iron tools justified the advancement of iron technology. Hoe from Aalamgirpur and Jakhera, must have been very helpful in breaking the hard soil of the Gangetic plain and preparing the field for cultivation 18. It is noteworthy

35 that iron tools were not only useful in breaking hard soil of the Gangetic plains but also for powering water for irrigation by tapping artificial sources of water such as digging of wells, tanks and canals. Kaccha wells are attested at Jakhera and Atranjíkhera associated with the painted Grey ware level 19. Several factors were contributed in the Gangetic Valley urbanization as a local agricultural base, an organized trading activity and a central political power structure. Role of Sabha, Samiti and Vidatha (Scope and Functions):- It is a correct emphasis to say that the Āryan occupation of Ganga plains could not have taken place without iron. But priority should be given to the factor of political power and centralization. In the Vedic literature we find that Āryan society was organized on the basis of political institution which governed by the king. The three important institutions and assemblies of Vedic period were Sabhā 20, Samiti 21, Vidatha 22 and Parisad. The family was the basis of Vedic state. A number of families, connected with ties of kinship, formed the Grāma. An aggregate of villages made up Vis (district or clan) and a group of Vis composed the Jana (tribe). The tribe was under the rule of its chief or king. In the Atharavaveda the term Sabhā and Samiti are used to explicate two different concepts. In another verse of the R gveda Sona is said to confer a son who is sadanya vidathya and sabheya 23. Amongst them vidatha, frequently mentioned in the Vedic texts and mainly confined to R gveda is a word of obscure sense. Sabhā and Samiti are mentioned respectively only 8 and 9 times in the R gveda and 17 and 13 times in the

36 Atharvaveda whereas Vidatha is mentioned 122 times in the R gveda and 22 times in the Atharvaveda 24. The Samiti was the most popular assembly of the Vedic Āryans. Mostly it was interested in the military and political of tribal life. Learned persons went to the Samiti to discuss matters of religious and metaphysical importance 25. According to R.S. Sharma It was attended by men and women performing all kinds of functions-economic, military, religious and social. How for the Vidatha was served as an instrument of government is difficut to determine 26. K.P. Jaiswal thinks that Samiti was the national assembly of the whole people of Visah, electing and reelecting the Rajan or the king 27. Similar the simiti, sabhā was an ancient institution. Zimmer rightly suggests that in Vedic texts sabhā has been used for denoting several things one of which was the meeting place of the village community. Sometimes it designated as the community hall where the meetings were held 28. Sabhā did not always mean the gathering of village community or a community hall in Vedic references. It had concern with animals, agricultural also. In the Atharvaveda there are few verses showing the deliberative functions of the samiti and the sabhā 29. It shows that in the samiti during deliberations, speakers were anxious to make speeches. A Vedic text quated in the Pāraskara Gŗhya Sútra also states that the speaker wanted to prove, himself brilliant not to be contradicted in the samiti 30. Sabhā was the possession of an individual and from these we may infer that it did not always mean the gathering of village community or a

37 community hall 31. The sabhā was the king s court to discharge some economic functions related to revenue. The Vedic text informs that sabhā acted as a judicial court 32 and concern with taxation 33 also. The R gveda mentions that the king or the emperor used to attend sabhā, vidatha and samiti. Thus on the basis of Vedic references we are able to study the political life and activities of the earlier Vedic period to some extent. The existence of the samiti and sabhā express democratic element in the Vedic political through because both these popular assemblies enjoyed the right of debate and discussion. Regarding the political organizations of the Vedic age, we find from the Vedas that the family (Goha or Kula) was the ultimate basis of Vedic state. A number of families, connected with ties of kinship, formed the Grāma (village). An aggregate of villages made up the (vis district or clan) and a group of Vis composed the jana (tribe). The tribe was under the rule of its chief or king. In the R gveda the term jana occurs 275 times and vis 170 times. It indicates that the social organization of the early Vedic Āryans was based more on the jana and Vis organization them on the basis of village Grāma generally translated into village. The jana was a category wider than the Grāma; in between these two was the unit vis-rajan who was above the Grāmani was called the protector of jana 34. Ganarajya:- Ganarajya is an ancient term used in the later Vedic times for an obligarchy or a republic where political power remained not in one