Chester Archaeological Society

Journal of the Chester Archaeological Society Volum e 86 for 2016 The Society notes with sorrow the death on 1 March 2017 of its Vice-President, Prof Dai Morgan Evans FSA, Hon MiFA. An obituary will appear in the next volume of the Journal. Papers relating to the Architecture, Archaeology and History of the County, City and Neighbourhood of Chester Edited by PETER CARRINGTON with Janet Axworthy, Dan Garner and Alan Williams Chester 2017

Chester Archaeological Society and contributors 2017 ISSN 0309-359X Abbreviations The abbreviations used in this volum e fo llo w the system laid down in British Standard 4148 part 2; many of the m ost relevant abbreviations are listed in Signposts fo r archaeological publication ed 3. London: Council for British Archaeology, 1991. http://www.archaeologyuk.org/sites/www.britarch.ac.uk/ files/node-files/signposts_archpub_3rded.pdf Contributions The Society w elcom es articles about the architecture, archaeology and history of the pre-1974 county o f Cheshire and adjoining areas. If you are interested in contributing, please contact the Editorial Subcommittee, email chesterarchaeologicalsociety@ gmail.com. For notes on the scope, presentation, content and organisation o f contributions, and on house style, see www.chesterarchaeolsoc.org.uk/contributors.htm l. Designed and produced fo r the Society by aquarium graphic design lim ited w w w.aquarium gd.co.uk ii

Contents List o f illustrations List o f tables iv v I: Obituaries 1: Gerald Cavendish Grosvenor, 6th Duke of Westminster 1 KG, CB, CVO, OBE,TD, CD, DL Janet Axworthy 2: Dr Alistair (Sandy) Campbell JP Janet Axworthy 3 II: Book reviews 1: Rowan Patel The windmills and watermills o f Wirral: 5 a historical survey Roy Coppack 2: Susan Chambers (editor) Neston: stone age to steam age 7 Peter Carrington III: Hunting for the gatherers and eariy farmers of Cheshire: 11 an investigation of prehistoric land use in Chapel field, Poulton Kevin Cootes, Ron Cowell and Anne Teather with illustrations by Janet Axworthy IV: South Arclid Quarry, Sandbach, 2009-2014: a Bronze Age burnt 33 mound and other archaeological discoveries Nigel W Jones with contributions by Phillipa Bradley, Lome Elliott and Fiona Grant V: AEthelfrith and the Battle of Chester Clive Tolley 51 VI: Gamul Terrace and the Viking connection Stephen E Harding 97 VII: A knight's tale: a rare case of inter-personal violence 109 from medieval Norton Priory S Curtis-Summers, Anthea E Boylston and Alan R Ogden VIII: Milton Street, Chester, 2016: sample excavation of a Civil 121 War ditch Leigh Dodd with a contribution by Denise Druce IX: Notes 1: Cheshire National Mapping Programme (NMP) and lidar project: 131 sampling the Peak fringe, Cheshire plain and Mersey valley Ian Hardwick X: Cheshire past in 2014 1: Sites investigated Mark Leah 135 2: Finds reported under the Portable Antiquities Scheme 141 Vanessa Oakden Council and Officers fo r theyear 2015/16 161

Illustrations 111.1 Location map showing trenches 13 111.2 Shelf overlooking the Pulford Brook 14 111.3.1 Illustrated flints 1-8 20 111.3.2 Illustrated flints 9-18 21 111.4 Stone plaque 24 111.5 Polished stone axe 25 IV.1 Location of South Arclid quarry and plan showing archaeological features 34 and the basin mire IV. 2 Plan of the spread of material associated with the burnt mound 36 IV.3 Section of Pit [14] showing the location of the radiocarbon sample 36 IV.4 Pit [14] showing the depositional sequence 37 IV. 5 The excavation of the burnt mound 43 V. 1 Topography of the Heronbridge area, as envisaged for the time of the battle 66 of Chester V. 2 British and English kingdoms 73 VI. 1 Nineteenth-century map showing distribution of parish/township names 98 in Wirral VI.2 Distribution map of place names in-carr and-holm in Wirral 99 VI.3 Distribution map of all field/track names in Wirral containing Scandinavian 101 elements VI.4a Parts of 1398 rental of Henry de Sutton, Abbot of Chester 102 VI.4b Entry for Richard Hondesson 102 VI.4c Entry for Agnes Hondesdoghter and Johanna Hondesdoghter 102 Vl.4d Entry for Mabilla Raynaldesdoghter 102 VI.5 Plan of tenth-century Chester 104 VI.6 St Olave's Church, Lower Bridge Street, Chester 105 VI.7 Gamul Terrace 105 VII.1 Location of Norton Priory 110 VII.2 Burial SK22 111 VII.3 Plan of burials at Norton Priory 112 VII.4a Right side view oft1-t8 112 Vll.4b Areas on the body affected by blade trauma 112 VII.5 Enlarged right lateral view oft1-t3 113 VII.6 3-D scan oft1-t8 114 VII.7 Anterior view of the skull showing pagetic thickening of the cranium 116 VII.8 Anterior view of the right scapula showing pagetic thickening and 116 disorganised new bone VIII. Location of the site 123 VIII.2 Excavated section across ditch [107] 123 VIII.3 Location of Milton Street and Seller Street sites with possible line of ditch marked 126 VIII.4 Location of Milton Street and Seller Street ditches superimposed on 128 conjectural plan of Civil War defences iv

IX.1 Lidar image showing a potential Roman fortlet enclosure in a meander 132 of the River Dee X.1.1 Portable Roman altar from Nos 51-57 Upper Northgate Street, Chester 137 X.1.2 North wall of the Roman granary at Weaver Street and Commonhall Street, 138 Chester X.1.3 Roman surface at Gorse Stacks, Chester 139 X.2.1 Early Bronze Age flat axe from Agden 143 X.2.2 Late Bronze Age spearhead from Hulme Walfield 144 X.2.3 Early Iron Age sickle from Hulme Walfield 144 X.2.4 Possible Iron Age stud from Lowe rwithington 145 X.2.5 Copper alloy provincial Greek nummus of Severus Alexander from Chester 145 X.2.6 Roman copper alloy hairpin from Farndon 146 X.2.7 Roman coin hoard from Peover Superior during excavation at the British Museum 147 X.2.8 Roman coin hoard from Peover Superior during excavation at the British Museum 147 X.2.9 Early medieval copper alloy strap end from Foulk Stapleford 148 X.2.10 Early medieval copper alloy cross-staff head mount from Hulme Walfield 149 X.2.11 Early medieval copper alloy stirrup-strap mount from Somerford 149 X.2.12 Medieval lead alloy ampulla from Baddiley 151 X.2.13 Penny of Henry III from Barrow 151 X.2.14 Medieval metal vessel fragment from Neston 152 X.2.15 Medieval copper alloy seal matrix from Swettenham 152 X.2.16 Obverse oftudor coins in hoard from Buerton 154 X.2.17 Reverse oftudor coins in hoard from Buerton 154 X.2.18 Wooden sundial found with Tudor coin hoard at Buerton, showing case with lid 155 X.2.19 Wooden sundial found with Tudor coin hoard at Buerton, showing case 155 without lid X.2.20 Lead alloy and iron dress hook from Great Boughton 156 X.2.21 Post-medieval silver toothpick/ear scoop 156 Tables 111.1 Lithic assemblage quantified by type of raw material, trench and no of pieces 15 111.2 Knapping stages quantified by trench and no of pieces 16 111.3 Larger flake and blade debitage quantified by trench and no of pieces 16 111.4 Retouched implements quantified by form, trench and no of pieces 18 IV.1 Palaeoenvironmental analysis of samples from Pit [14] 40 IV.2 Charcoal analysis of the samples from Pit [14] 41 IV.3 Pollen analysis from base of peat Core 2 45 VIII.1 Finds from ditch [107] 124 VIII.2 Palaeoenvironmental assessment results of fill (105) from ditch [107] 125 X.1.1 Fieldwork carried out in Cheshire in 2015/16 quantified by local authority area 135 X.2.1 PAS finds from Cheshire in 2015 quantified by local authority area and period 142 X.2.2 PAS finds from Cheshire in 2015 quantified by local authority area and function 142 v

VI: Gamul Terrace and the Viking Connection by Stephen E Harding * On Lower Bridge Street, Chester, just opposite St Olave s Church, is the raised Gamul Terrace, which now houses the Brewery Tap public house (the former Gamul House) and a number of private homes. Gamul House was the home of Sir Francis Gamull (1606 1654), a mayor of Chester and prominent royalist during the Civil War. The name Gamul derives from a Norse personal name. It is therefore an intriguing coincidence that Gamul Terrace sits at the heart of Viking-age Chester. This short article summarises recent research on the settlement of the Vikings in Wirral, their expansion towards Chester and proposes a context for the name Gamul. Vikings in Wirral For at least part of the tenth and eleventh centuries the southern part of the city of Chester was home to a vibrant community of Viking origin that contributed towards the success of this former trading centre (Harding 2002; Griffiths 2010 and references therein). Documented Viking activity at Chester started in AD 893, when the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle (Thorpe ed 1861 and Swanton ed 1996) tells us how the Danes moved rapidly to a deserted or desolate town in Wirral called Chester and stayed there (until ~ AD 894/895) before embarking on a campaign of raiding in Wales. The ancient Welsh annals Annales Cambriae (Morris ed 1980) and Brut y Tywysogion (Jones ed 1952) pick up on the story from the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle: Annales Cambriae sa 895: Nordmani venerunt et vastaverunt Loyer et Bricheniaue et Guent et Guinnligiauc. The Northmen came and laid waste England, Brecheiniog, Gwent and Gwenllwg. Brut y Tywysogion sa 894: And then the Northmen devastated England, Brecheiniog, Morganwy, Gwent, Buallt and Gwenllwg. The chronicler s reference to Chester as a deserted/desolate town in Wirral is interesting. Wainwright (1942, 5, 12) speculated that the desolation may have dated from the Battle of Chester ~ AD 613 in which the Angles crushed the Britons, or to a more recent attack by Norsemen operating in the Irish Sea, or by an attack by the Welsh. * Stephen E Harding, Professor of Applied Biochemistry, School of Biosciences, University of Nottingham, Sutton Bonington LE12 5RD.Email: steve.harding@nottingham.ac.uk 97

S E HARDING The next Viking encounter was a very different one. Irish chronicles The Three Fragments tell us of the settlement of Wirral by Vikings of primarily Norse or Norwegian origin who had been expelled from Dublin in the year AD 902, after an agreement between Æthelflæd, Queen of Mercia, and the Norse leader Ingimund (O Donovan ed 1860; Wainwright 1942; see also Cavill et al 2000, 20 5, 40, 44 59). From the evidence of major localities with Norse or Hiberno-Norse names (Wainwright 1942; Dodgson 1957; Cavill et al 2000, 35 42; Harding 2000, 109) this settlement appears to have been both substantial and, initially, largely confined to the north and west of the peninsula, with Raby (ON rá-býr boundary settlement ) at its southern boundary and Thingwall (ON Þing vǫllr Assembly field ) its place of assembly or parliament at the centre (Ill VI.1). The agreement Ill VI.1 Nineteenth-century map showing distribution of parish/township names in Wirral. The boundary line, according to Dodgson (1957, 306) and Griffiths (1992, 67), passing along the southern edge of Raby (from ON rá and ON býr) marks the southern limit of the initial Norse enclave as deduced from the names of Norse or Norse-Irish names in Wirral and also manorial holdings at the time of the Domesday Survey (AD 1086) by people with Norse or Norse-Irish names. 98

VI: GAMUL TERRACE AND THE VIKING CONNECTION Ill VI.2 Distribution map of place names in -carr (filled circles) and -holm (open circles) in Wirral recorded in the nineteenth-century tithe map apportionments or earlier (Harding 2007-8) with Æthelflæd no doubt required the settlement to be peaceful which appears to have been honoured at least for the first few years. To make sure of this Æthelflæd appears according to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle for the year 907 (Thorpe ed 1861; Swanton ed 1996) to have refortified Chester. The relative peace ended abruptly in that year. Possibly as a result of overcrowding together with a growing dissatisfaction at the low quality of the lands they had settled much of the northern part of Wirral suffering periodic inundation (there are a large number of -carr and -holm place names, reflecting the presence of flooded land: see below) the Three Fragments (O Donovan ed 1860; Wainwright 1942, 16 18; Cavill et al 2000, 20 5, 40, 44 59) tell of a meeting between Ingimund and the leaders of the Norsemen, Danes and their Irish followers. This meeting, possibly at Thingwall (Jesch 2000), resulted in the issue of an ultimatum, followed by attacks on Chester. The attacks, reported in legendary detail in the Three Fragments, were repelled but the story ends: but it was not long before the Norsemen came to do battle again... (Wainwright 1942, 18). 99

S E HARDING The distributions of the -carr and -holm names are particularly interesting (Harding 2007 8 and Ill VI.2). Ultimately the word -carr is derived from the Old Norse (ON) kjarr, brushwood, marsh, boggy land overgrown with brushwood. At first sight it appears that, with a few exceptions, the use of this place name element is peculiar to the area of the original enclave as defined by the names of major settlements. However, the distribution map shows the location of the boggy areas of Wirral as much as it does the Norse influence on naming. Much the same applies to the -holm(e) names, derived from ON holmr, dry ground on a marsh, a water meadow. There are fifty-one instances of carr and twenty-four of holm in Wirral, all recorded in the nineteenth-century tithe map apportionments or earlier. The earliest recorded examples include Holmlache (1209) in Stanlow (Dodgson 1972, 186), le Kar (1294) in Overchurch and Routheholm (1306) in Wallasey where holmr is com - pounded with the ON adjective rauðr, red (Dodgson 1972, 307, 335). The overlap between the distributions of -carr and -holm is striking, mostly congregating around the Rivers Birket and Fender. What is also striking is the fact that the normal Old English words for these topographical features, elements such as mersc, marsh and ēg, dry ground in marsh are almost completely absent from these areas. This is significant: the Norse-derived words had become the normal ones in the area when the names were given and had possibly replaced earlier ones. Although the story of Ingimund in the Three Fragments ends in AD 907 and we are not told of the final outcome it appears that the Vikings did eventually gain a presence in the southern part of Wirral and also in Chester, in what seems to have been a largely peaceful co-existence and indeed to some extent fusion with the English (Wainwright 1942, 45). The distribution of minor (field-, track- and topographical) names of Norse or Irish origin shows a wider spread through the peninsula (Harding 2000; Harding 2007-8; 2016) compared to the older major names, extending southwards beyond Raby, although it is impossible to establish how far this took place before the Norman Conquest. Ill VI.3 shows the distribution of these names based on their earliest recorded forms. The earliest forms are relevant because field- and track names can change depending on the local farmer at the time and reflect the language and dialect being spoken at the time the field or track was named (see Wainwright 1943, 98 9; Griffiths & Harding 2014). Other evidence for a surviving dialect in the area at least until the start of the fifteenth century comes for example from records of rentals, with personal names such as Agnes and Johanne Hondesdoghter and Richard Hondesson recorded in Great Sutton parish for 1398 and Mabilla Raynaldesdoghter in Childer Thornton parish (Ill VI.4). The fourteenthcentury poem Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, in which part of the action takes place in Wirral, is thought to have been written by someone from the area or not far away (it has been associated with Sir John Stanley (1350 1414) of Storeton Hall, either as the patron of the poet or the poet himself (Mathew 1968, 166; Wilson 1979)), and is notable for its use of a large number (some 10% of its content) of Norse dialect words, such as storr, karp, renk, gata, rendering it very different from Chaucer s Canterbury Tales, written around the same time (see, for example, Harding & Vaagan 2011, 188 194, 273, 284). 100

VI: GAMUL TERRACE AND THE VIKING CONNECTION Ill VI.3 Distribution map of all field/track names in Wirral containing Scandinavian elements. Thingwall is marked as a square. Such names can change over many generations depending on the wishes of the local farmer/local community, and this distribution appears to reflect a continuing Scandinavian influence. One can also see how this influence appears to have spread past the boundary of the initial enclave and throughout the peninsula to Chester. Nevertheless, the Viking influence on the local dialect has not been as long lasting as in parts of the Lake District, where there had been perhaps less integration with the English for example the West Ward of the Westmorland Barony area as a recent study has shown (Rye 2015, 231 345). In all the Viking place names of Wirral there are no examples of inflections which indicate the preservation of an advanced form of Viking language: the nearest examples are in neighbouring south-west Lancashire with Litherland Hlíðarland, Slope s land and Lathom Hlaðum, at the barns (Wainwright 1944 6). The historical and place name evidence for the existence of a strong and vibrant Viking colony on Wirral is supported by archaeological evidence and genetics. Wirral is home to 101

S E HARDING Ill VI.4a Parts of 1398 rental of Henry de Sutton, Abbot of Chester. The top image shows the rental for Great Sutton and the lower image part of the rental for Childer Thornton. Highlighted and expanded are entries for Richard Hondesson (Ill VI.4b), Agnes Hondesdoghter and Johanna Hondesdoghter (Ill VI.4c) and Mabilla Raynaldesdoghter (Ill VI.4d). The Viking style sson and doghter format for surnames are still used in modern Iceland. BL Add MS 36764. The British Library; reproduced by kind permission. Ill VI.4b Ill VI.4d Ill VI.4c two hogback tombstones, at West Kirby and Bidston, and a Hiberno-Norse cross at St Barnabas Church Bromborough has been restored. There are fragments of at least three further crosses at Neston; a replica of one, which includes the touching image of a couple embracing, has been produced by the Merseyside Conservation Centre (White 2014). Further archaeological evidence includes the discovery of a silver ingot at nearby Ness (Bean 2000), Hiberno-Norse ring pins at Meols, and weaponry (bent spear head, shield boss, axe) that appears to come from a Viking burial, also at Meols (Griffiths 2014). A recent genetic survey of men from long-established families in Wirral and west Lancashire 102

VI: GAMUL TERRACE AND THE VIKING CONNECTION (possessing surnames that were present in these areas prior to 1600) based on the male Y- chromosome has shown that up to 50% of the genetic admixture is Scandinavian in origin in both areas (Bowden et al 2008; Harding et al 2010, 93 111; King 2014). Vikings in Chester From AD 910 to 1066 a significant number of moneyers and landowners bearing Norse names appear in Chester (see Wainwright 1942, 32 3; Pagan 2012, 13 15). The proportion of moneyers with Norse names appears to have been far higher than at many mints elsewhere in England, even during the period of Scandinavian rule by King Canute (1017 35) and his sons Harald (until 1040) and Hardacanute (1042), when one would expect them to be ubiquitous. By Canute s time a strong Scandinavian community appears to have been well established in the southern part of the city around what is now Lower Bridge Street, with evidence of this influence extending to the south of the River Dee in Handbridge (see Wainwright 1942, 31). The existence of this community is reflected in some street names: Clippe Gate (near the Bridgegate) and Wolfeld s Gate (the old name for Newgate) derive from the Norse personal names of the man Klyppr and woman Úlfhildr respectively. There is also Crook Street (ON man s name Krókr). Again the historical, place- and personal name evidence is matched by archaeology. A number of hoards from the Viking age have been found in the city (Griffiths 2010, 108 9), the best known being the Castle Esplanade hoard discovered in a pot in 1950 and dated to c 965 70; it comprises twenty-seven ingots, 120 pieces of hack silver and 547 coins. Fragments of arm rings and brooches resemble jewellery from Ballaquayle, Isle of Man. Other finds all coins were made at St Johns Church (1862, dated to 917 20), Eastgate Row (1857) and Pemberton s Parlour (1914), dated to the 970s (Griffiths 2010, ibid). The coins from the Castle Esplanade find, along with the other Chester finds, have been recently well reviewed by Pagan (2012, 17 26). A Norse brooch discovered in Princess Street, Chester, is identical to one discovered in Dublin and was doubtless made from the same mould (Graham-Campbell 1994). Not far away a hoard of Viking treasure dated to Ingimund s time was discovered in 2004 in the village of Huxley (Graham-Campbell & Philpott 2009). Remains of Scandinavian-style sunken-featured timber buildings, similar to examples discovered at Wood Quay, Dublin, and York, were found during the 1974 6 excavations at 26 42 Lower Bridge Street (Mason 1985, 8 21; Griffiths 2010, 132 3, Harding 2002 and references therein). A putative plan of tenth-century Chester is given in Ill VI.5. In the southern part of Chester two churches have Norse-Irish roots. One of these is St Olave s, a church dedicated to the Norwegian king, Ólaf Haraldsson, King Ólaf the Saint (died in battle at Stikkelstad, 1030). The church (Ill VI.6) is situated on the east side of Lower Bridge Street, almost opposite the Scandinavian-style buildings referred to above. Other churches dedicated to the same saint can be found across northern Europe (see Dickins 1939). Another church (now lost) was St Bridget s, dedicated to the Irish saint Bridget (OIr Brigid). St Olave s is no longer used for regular formal services. However, in 2001 and 2002 it was used for St Olav s Day services (in English and Norwegian), to celebrate the 1100th anniversary of the arrival of Ingimund (see www.nottingham.ac.uk/- sczsteve for recordings of these events), and since 2007 has been the destination of an 103

S E HARDING Ill VI.5 Plan of tenth-century Chester: areas of settlement indicated by dots. The main Scandinavian community was towards the south of the city (approximately marked by the circle) although there appears to have been considerable integration. Cheshire West and Chester City Council; reproduced by kind permission. annual St Olav s Day (29 July) pilgrimage from St Bridget s Church in West Kirby to parallel the main annual St Olav s pilgrimages in Norway (Harding & Robinson 2009). Gamul Terrace, Sir Francis Gamull and John Gamel Across the road from St Olave s is Gamul Terrace and Gamul House (Ill VI.7), the former home of Sir Francis Gamull (1606 54) of Buerton, Mayor of Chester 1636 38) and a prominent Royalist who survived the Civil War (Ward 2009, 69; King et al 1778, 553 70). Intriguingly the origin of his name is Old Norse, as in gamall, old or as in a man s name, Gamall. The name Gamel is listed as that of a pre-norman Conquest Cheshire landowner in Domesday Book (Wainwright 1942 34, 39). As noted above, Scandinavian personal names persisted well after the Norman Conquest and appear in medieval documents: a John Gamel appears in the Chartulary of St Werburgh s Abbey (Tait ed 1920, 102 7). Thus, while neither Gamul Terrace nor Gamul House themselves go back to the time of 104

VI: GAMUL TERRACE AND THE VIKING CONNECTION Ill VI.6 St Olave s Church, Lower Bridge Street, Chester Ill VI.7 Gamul Terrace today. A reflection of St. Olave s directly across Lower Bridge Street can be seen on the window. 105

S E HARDING the Vikings, it is at least an interesting coincidence that they carry a Viking personal name and are located directly opposite the centre of the former Scandinavian community in Chester, St Olave s Church. Acknowledgements I should like to thank Peter Carrington, Clare Downham, David Griffiths, Judith Jesch, Rory Naismith (coinage) and Susan Stallibrass (sea-levels) for help with specific aspects of this article. Thanks are also due to Paul Newman of Cheshire Archives and Local Studies for permission to reproduce Ill VI.5 and Andrew Gough, Claire Wotherspoon, Claire Breay and Zoe Stansell of the British Library for their help with Ill VI.4. Bibliography Bean, S 2000 Silver ingot from Ness, Wirral. In: Cavill et al eds 2000, 17 18 Bowden, G R, Excavating past population structures by surname-based sampling: Balaresque, P, King, the genetic legacy of the Vikings in northwest England. Mol Biol Evol T E, Hansen, Z, Lee, 25, 301 9 A C, Pergl Wilson, G, Hurley, E, Roberts, S J, Waite, P, Jesch, J, Jones, A L, Thomas, M G, Harding, S E & Jobling, M A 2008 Cavill, P, Harding, S E & Jesch, J 2000 eds Dickins, B 1939 Wirral and its Viking heritage. (English Place-Name Society Popular Series 2). Nottingham: English Place-Name Society The cult of St Olave in the British Isles. Saga Book of the Viking Society 12, 53 80 Dodgson, J McN 1957 The background of Brunanburh. Saga Book of the Viking Society 14, 303 16. Reprinted in Cavill et al eds 2000, 60 9 Dodgson, J McN 1972 The place names of Cheshire. Part 4: the place names of Broxton Hundred and Wirral Hundred. (English Place-Name Society 47). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Graham-Campbell, J A 1994 Graham Campbell, J A & Philpott, R A eds 2009 Griffiths, D 1992 Jellinge style disc brooch. In: Ward, S et al. Excavations at Chester, Saxon occupation within the Roman fortress: sites excavated 1971 1981. (Archaeol Serv Excav Surv Rep 7). Chester: Chester City Council, 66 7 The Huxley hoard: Scandinavian settlement in the North-West. Liverpool: National Museums Liverpool The coastal trading ports of the Irish Sea. In: Graham-Campbell, J ed. Viking treasure from the North-West: the Cuerdale hoard in its context. (Occas Pap Liverpool Mus 5). Liverpool: National Museums and Galleries on Merseyside, 63 72 Griffiths, D 2010 Vikings of the Irish Sea: conflict and assimilation AD 790 1050. Stroud: History Press Griffiths, D 2014 A brief history and archaeology of Viking activity in north west England. In: Harding et al eds, 33 49 106

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S E HARDING Tait, J ed 1920 Thorpe, B ed 1861 The Chartulary or Register of the Abbey of St Werburgh, Chester. (Remains Historical and Literary connected with the Palatine Counties of Lancaster and Cheshire 79). Manchester: Chetham Society Anglo Saxon Chronicle. (Rolls Series 1). London: Longmans, Green Wainwright, F T 1942 North-west Mercia 871 924. Trans Hist Soc Lancashire Cheshire 94, 3 56. Reprinted with edits in Cavill et al eds 2000, 19 42 Wainwright, F T 1943 Wirral field names. Antiquity 27, 57 66. Reprinted with edits in Cavill et al eds 2000, 98 9 Wainwright, F T The Scandinavians in Lancashire. Trans Lancashire Cheshire Antiq 1944 6 Soc 58, 71 116 Ward, S 2009 White, R 2014 Wilson, E 1979 Chester: a history. Chichester: Phillimore Figuring it out: further work on the Neston cross fragments, Cheshire. In: Harding et al eds, 179 88 Sir Gawain and the Green Knight and the Stanley family of Stanley, Storeton and Hooton. Rev English Stud 30, 308 16 108