HISTORY Subject : History (For under graduate student) Paper No. : Paper-I History of India Topic No. & Title : Unit- 4 Indus Civilization Topic- c Chalcolithic Cultures of India Lecture No. & Title : Lecture 2a Chalcolithic Cultures of India (Part-1) Neolithic-Chalcolithic cultures in non-harappan India The term Chalcolithic signifies the first use of copper and bronze in a lithic context, which means that a full fledge stone tool using community first begins to use copper artifacts. In the context of Indian prehistory, we find that such Chalcolithic cultures had flourished over a wide region. The first sites were found in Rajasthan, the Malwa region in central India, and in the Deccan. The period ranges from round the third millennium BCE. The
Chalcolithic period is significant for a number of reasons. It was marked by technological innovation, and cultural contacts between diverse groups. This is also a phase when the intensification of craft specialization brought about certain new complexities in early societies. Chalcolithic cultures represent a stage when the early farming communities began to use non-ferrous metals like copper, but in a small way. Little change can however be detected in the socio-economic structure of these communities, when they moved from the Neolithic phase to the Chalcolithic phase, which means that the new or improved technologies could not effect changes in the other aspects of their lives. The simple, tribal, non- Harappan village communities, did not transform themselves into a more complex system, in the manner that the Harappan people had been able to develop. They were contemporary to the Harappans, but continued to remain at a relatively simple stage. In certain parts of the subcontinent we notice, that copper began to be used as early as 3000 BCE.
The Chalcolithic clusters first encountered in India, outside the Harappan orbit, were located in northeastern Rajasthan, especially round the region rich in copper mines, in Khetri and Baleshwar area. About eighty sites have been discovered in this region, around the districts of Sikar, Jhunjhunu and Alwar. This cultural complex goes by the name of Ganeshwar-Jodhpura, in accordance with the type-sites which were first discovered. Jodhpura was the earliest to be discovered in 1970. It has yielded a very early date of civilization, where the first period belongs to a hunting gathering community (earliest dates being around the last quarter of fourth millennium BCE), with a continuous occupation up to 2000 BCE. The distinctive type of pottery that has been retrieved, is wheel made, ranging in colour from orange to red. Another site called Ganeshwar is located near the Neemkathana area. At Ganeshwar, one comes across three cultural phases. The first phase starts around 3800 BCE, when the occupiers seem to belong to the hunting gathering
community. The assemblage consisted mostly of microliths, and some sort of dwelling signatures. But it is in period II that belongs to 2800 BCE, that the initiation of copper occurs. Copper artifacts come in the nature of, fish-hooks, arrow-heads, spear-heads, as well as a single piece of copper awl, or sharp needle kind of tool. Inhabitants here appear to have been living in small circular huts of wattle and daub. The floors were prepared by plastering with rammed pieces of rock or pebble. Period III has revealed a wide range of copper artifacts, like spear heads, arrow heads, fish hooks, and in addition to these some special type of axes, knives, as well as ornaments, like copper bangles and rings. There is a sharp decline in the use of microliths, and the culture denotes the peak of the Chalcolithic civilization. There is evidence of interesting cultural contacts. The pottery from Ganeshwar resembles the pottery from the early Harappan context, especially those from the early
Harappan sites from Gujarat. It also seems that the kind of pottery that was found from the early Harappan context at Banawali was discovered as surface finds from the site of Ganeshwar, suggesting the possibility of direct contact. Dr. Dilip Chakrabarti suggests that it seems that the copper that was being smelted and manufactured from Ganeshwar was probably getting transported to the Harappan sites of Kunal and Kalibangan. He also states that the huge array of copper objects found from Ganeshwar actually signified a propensity towards craft specialization among the people at Ganeshwar. These people were simple tribal folks no doubt, but they had a specialized occupation of working with metals and probably supplying metal objects as well as smelted metal to the people in Kalibangan or Kunal or even farther to the north and west. The use of copper, and bronze was a catalytic factor in the emergence of the urban Harappan community. Therefore as a peripheral
culture, the Chalcolithic context of Ganeshwar-Jodhpura probably contributed to the Harappan cultural orbit. The Banas culture is contemporary to the north-eastern culture of Rajasthan, but it was from the south-eastern part of Rajasthan. About eighty sites belonging to the cultural complex denoted by the first site have been discovered at Ahar, located on the river valleys of the Banas and Berak. This culture is thus named Ahar or Banas, and dates range from around 2500 BCE to 1900 BCE. Three phases of culture are present at Ahar, which happens to be the type-site. From the very first phase we get copper objects (Chalcolithic). But it is noteworthy, that from period IB we get a few iron implements, and in period IC we get more iron implements, along with some signs of local manufacture of both copper and iron. This has aroused a lot of debate about the early emergence of iron metallurgy in the sub continent. This cultural complex is also denoted by the use of rice. The stone tool repertoire consists of food processing units like saddle querns, and semi precious stone beads. Bones
of domesticated animals like cow, buffalo, sheep, goat and pig, have also been recovered from this site. All this seems to point to a complete culture, which practiced a mixed farming economy. Balathal is another splendid Chalcolithic site, belonging to the Banas-Ahar complex. Both the sites of Balathal and Gilund are located in Udaipur district. Balathal is remarkable for the presence of a fortified enclosure. The fortification wall is built up on stone blocks packed with mud, and the four bastions at the four corners are clearly discernible. The earliest Chalcolithic phase is found outside this fortification wall, and it comprises of mudbrick dwellings, mud- plaster floors, and mud-plaster storage bins. But the later phases witnessed the development of larger rectangular habitation structures, which were built of mud bricks, or stone bricks, on stone foundations. The complex is relatively large, about five hundred square metres, inside which there were three multi-roomed complexes, with separate spaces for kitchen and storage units. There is a road running inside the enclosure from a north-west to south-east direction,
with a width of about 2 to 4.8 meters. Different types of pottery and semi-precious beads are among the artifacts found from Balathal. The discoveries at Gilund were broadly similar to those at Ahar. The structural remains include a mud-brick complex, measuring about 30.48 x 24.38 metres, and a wall made of burnt bricks, resting on a foundation of stone rubble. Storage pits have also been found. Artifacts include microliths, fragments of copper, and beads of semi-precious stones. Terracotta figurines of animals like bulls have also been recovered. There is reason to believe that there was considerable contact between the cultures of the north-eastern and south eastern Rajasthan, as Ganeswar type of pottery has been found at Balathal. It seems that Gilund was quite a self sustaining unit of village farming culture. Rajasthan Chalcolithic sites were using different kinds of raw materials, like copper, bronze (copper mines were
located nearby), as well as shell, terracotta, faience, and semi- precious stones like jasper, agate, carnelian and lapis lazuli. What is interesting is that the etched carnelian beads, and beads of lapis lazuli, recovered from the Rajasthan Chalcolithic sites, are typical of the Harappan culture. This serves to indicate that there might have been some kind of cultural connection with the Gujarat Harappan, and that the culture and the items had travelled from Gujarat, into the Rajasthan Chalcolithic complex. This region has produced pottery of an astounding variety. Apart from red ware, tan ware, red and black ware and buff coloured ware, there was a different kind of reserve slip ware, with a thin red coloured decoration painted on it, and a very thick red slip with incised designs. Copper artifacts include choppers, razors, knives, chisels, arrowheads all made of copper, but direct evidence of copper smelting has not been detected. From the remains of animal bones we have enough evidence of domesticated animals including cattle, buffalo, sheep,
goats, and pigs. Plant remains include wheat, barley, two types of millets, green and black gram, peas, and lentils. Apart from these, there are other finds like semi precious stone beads, terracotta balls, grinders, hammer stones and stone querns. Ornaments include terracotta necklaces and bangles made of shell, copper and other kinds of stone. According to Dr. Dilip Chakrabarti, the variety of finds indicates that there existed a kind of craft specialization in this region. Although there may not be much direct evidence available from the Rajasthan Chalcolithic sites about local metal smelting, copper slag, and fragments, at Ahar probably point to local smelting, and manufacture of copper objects. Given the array of copper objects that we find both from north-eastern, and south-eastern Rajasthan cultures, we can definitely put the Rajasthan Chalcolithic on the map of Indian prehistoric metal innovations. Chalcolithic cultures in central India start with a cultural complex known as Kayatha after the type site, dateable
to the late 3000 BCE. It lies on the Malwa plateau, which is rich and fertile, and is washed by various rivers such as the Narmada, Betwa, and Shipra. Parts of Malwa had close connections with Harappan Gujarat. But the exact Harappan cultural phase in Malwa is ill defined and vague. A distinctive thick brown slipped pottery, a buff coloured pottery and a chrome red ware, have been recovered from Kayatha. There are mud and reed houses, with mud-plastered floors, along with bones of domesticated animals like cattle and horses. There existed a stone microlithic blade industry, and an elaborate copper assemblage, which included a large number of copper objects. Kayatha has yielded a distinctive type of axe cast in mould, as well as copper chisels, and copper ornaments like copper bangles. The axes from Kayatha resemble the Ganeshwar axes, which in turn point to some type of cultural connection between the two Chalcolithic cultures. There might even have been connections with the
Harappan culture, as the steatite beads and pottery from Kayatha, resemble Harappan specimens. So it seems that all these three regions (the Malwa, Kayatha and Ganeshwar), as well as the Harappan culture may have been interlinked. Interestingly the Kayatha site was abandoned sometime around 1800 BCE, but resurfaced once again as a centre of the subsequent Ahar culture. The Ahar phase of culture is also present in Kayatha, and other sites of the Chambal valley. There are also other sites, where remnants of copper artifacts have been found, indicating a wider use of copper. The most striking feature of the material culture is the typical red on black pottery, with designs painted on them that we get from the site. The other striking feature is the blade tool industry. Other cultural items include terracotta figurines mostly of animals, some of which are quiet naturalistic, while others are more stylized figurines. The houses of these regions closely resemble the Ahar culture dwellings. Copper seems to have had a marginal use in this region.
The Malwa culture is marked by a very typical pottery that had a very thick, coarse core and a thick buff slip. Among the structural remains of this period, we have mostly wattle and daub houses, with lime-plastered floors, and wooden posts which probably supported the roofs. The crop pattern consisted of different varieties of wheat, linseed, green gram, black gram, and several kinds of pulses. The structural remains at Nagda are very striking because of the use of mud bricks we have huge mud ramparts and a moat. Microlithic blade assemblage appears prominently among craft items. Certain copper tools are also available, like the copper axes with round indentation marks, resembling the copper axes from Ganeshwar, as well as copper chisels and some copper bangles. There are also signs of tin and lead alloy. There is a huge assemblage of semi-precious stone beads, and those made of shell, jasper, agate, lapis lazuli, and carnelian. The Chalcolithic assemblage from central India was almost similar in profile to that of Rajasthan. There seems to have been continuity from Rajasthan (especially from the south
eastern part of Rajasthan), into the Malwa plateau. Through south-eastern, and north-eastern Rajasthan, the cultures probably reached the central Indian cultural complex and also had access to the Harappans. Some idea about religious beliefs may be made out from the objects that have been found. At the earliest level in Navdatoli, there is a pit, which probably had a ritualistic implication. The walls and floors were plastered. Some charred wood found from here seems to indicate some kind of sacrifices. In the middle of the floor the remains of some hard wood perhaps has the same implications. A significant find is a huge storage jar on which there was an image of a shrine done in appliqué technique, with the picture of a woman to the right, and that of a lizard on the left. The significance of this is not yet known, but it may have been used for some ritualistic purpose. Wakankar has said that at Dangwada he has found a combination of a female torso and a phallus, which too probably had some ritualistic implications. The profusion of bull images may also point at the same direction. The
discovery of a fire altar almost certainly indicates some kind of belief system. The Chalcolithic complex from central India, had its own local traits which were growing from within, but with connections to external cultures like the Ahar culture in Malwa. The region had its own system of religious beliefs. The use of copper is much scarcer in the central Indian context, than in Rajasthan, probably due to the availability of copper, nearer to Rajasthan, whereas Central India there is not much access. It could even be that the culture was more oriented towards the use of stone tools, microlithic blades, and the lesser use of copper. Although there were overall cultural connections, there were also some kind of indigenous roots from within.