The effects of facial image and cosmetic usage on perceptions of brand personality Michelle Guthrie Chambersburg, Pennsylvania, USA, and

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1 The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at JFMM 12,2 164 Received August 2006 Accepted January 2007 The effects of facial image and cosmetic usage on perceptions of brand personality Michelle Guthrie Chambersburg, Pennsylvania, USA, and Hye-Shin Kim and Jaehee Jung University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware, USA Abstract Purpose This paper seeks to examine women s perceptions of brand personality in relation to women s facial image and cosmetic usage. This study seeks to develop a better understanding of how various factors influence perceptions of cosmetic brands. Design/methodology/approach An electronic survey was administered to a sample of 225 female participants at a mid-atlantic university in the USA. The survey included items measuring facial image, cosmetic usage, brand personality, and brand attitude. Multiple regression analyses were conducted to determine the relationship among variables. Findings While the brand personality of competence was found to be important across all three brands, consumer perceptions pertaining to the remaining brand personality traits differed. This study found that consumers facial image influenced the total quantity of cosmetics used but not the variation in quantity in different situations. Results also indicate that a relationship exists between facial image and brand perceptions. Also, it was found that a different group of brand personality traits influenced brand attitude for each cosmetic brand. Research limitations/implications By examining how facial image and cosmetic usage determine brand perceptions, companies can improve their marketing strategies to enhance customer satisfaction and increase their customer base. Moreover, by identifying the brand personalities that attract consumers, companies can pin-point the characteristics customers look for in a product, which in turn can be used to enhance brand image. Further research on different age groups and cultures should be conducted to better understand cosmetic consumers. Originality/value This study contributes to the body of knowledge in the area of consumer behavior and cosmetics. From this study, a better understanding of cosmetic consumers is gained and the results provide brand marketers with valuable information. Keywords Brand image, Cosmetics, Consumer behaviour, Consumer satisfaction, Marketing strategy Paper type Research paper Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management Vol. 12 No. 2, 2008 pp q Emerald Group Publishing Limited DOI / Introduction All aspects of managing one s outward appearance are integral to the fashion process. Rudd and Lennon (2000, p. 152) define dress as the act of choosing how and with what items or processes to construct personal appearance. As such appearance management behaviors include not only apparel, but also cosmetic use and other intentional behaviors Similar to apparel, cosmetic products are applied to enhance one s appearance and used to communicate one s style or aesthetic preference. Make-up application complements the use of clothing to develop and complete a look. Craik (1993, p. 158) explains that Make-up inscribes the attributes of personality onto the

2 social body. Therefore, makeup not only assists one in completing an overall look, but also in conveying a positive declaration of the self (Craik, 1993). The marketing strategies of cosmetic brands and products mirror those of apparel fashion brands, which focus on current styles and trends that express a target group s desired image. In Western cultures, one of the commonly recognized reasons women use cosmetics is to improve their physical attractiveness. For example, Cash and Cash (1982) found women to express a more positive body image and self-image when wearing makeup compared to when not wearing makeup (Cash and Cash, 1982). According to Creekmore (1974), clothing may act as an adaptive function that can improve one s feelings about the self. Similarly, the confidence women feel after applying cosmetics may encourage them to engage in this practice. Despite the increasing demand for cosmetic products among women as well as men, little is known about how consumer characteristics and cosmetic usage patterns influence perceptions of cosmetic brands. This research examines women s perceptions of brand personality in relation to women s facial image and cosmetic usage. Brand personality, as part of brand image, associates consumer s perceptions of the brand with human characteristics in a symbolic way. By studying women s cosmetic usage (quantity and pattern of use) in conjunction with facial image, this study seeks to develop a better understanding of how these factors influence perceptions of and feelings toward cosmetic brands. Finally, this study seeks to assist companies in better understanding their consumers. Jamal and Goode (2001) state that brand managers must manage the meanings consumers associate with their respective brands. By examining factors which influence women s cosmetic purchase behavior, including facial image and perceptions of brand personality, companies can identify a basis for their marketing strategy. Literature review Cosmetics industry overview The US cosmetics and toiletries industry made $33.5 billion in 2005, at the manufacturers level, a 4.1 percent increase from the 2004 sales of $32.2 billion (Kline and Company, 2005, 2006). Kline and Company, an international market research firm, found that skin care was the highest selling product class, while makeup was the third highest selling product category in the USA during In the USA, ten companies make up 63 percent of the total cosmetics and toiletries sales. This percentage includes the following companies evaluated in this study: Proctor and Gamble w [1] (owners of CoverGirl w ) holds 18 percent of the US market share, while Estée Lauder w (owners of M A C w and Clinique w ) comprises 7.5 percent of the US market share. Kline and Company predicts the US cosmetics and toiletries industry to reach over $39 billion by 2010, increasing 3.1 percent annually from 2005 and expects skin care products to dominate the industry in the upcoming years. Euromonitor International (2006a,b), a market intelligence and consulting company, forecasts the US cosmetics and toiletries market to grow 2 percent annually from 2005 to Both Kline and Company and Euromonitor believe the demand for skin care products will increase, as baby-boomers age and continue to seek anti-aging cosmetics. A study by Mintel International Group Ltd (2006) also supports this finding, stating that between 2000 and 2010 the population of women aged 45 to 64, those constituting the baby-boomer group, will increase by approximately 30 percent. Finally, Euromonitor found color cosmetic products grew Facial image and cosmetic usage 165

3 JFMM 12,2 166 by 3 percent in 2005, with the most growth in the eye makeup category. Mintel also found eye makeup to represent the second-largest makeup category in sales, while facial makeup or facial treatments produced the most sales. Although the US cosmetics and toiletry industry is presently experiencing moderate growth, this study hopes to assist marketers by analyzing the cosmetic consumer to ultimately gain market share, increase sales, and maintain strong and continuous growth. By identifying consumers thoughts and behaviors, marketers can begin to understand how they choose specific cosmetic products and brands. This allows cosmetic companies to compete more effectively and to enhance current marketing strategies. In the past, the USA cosmetics industry was divided into two distinct categories: the mass merchandiser level and the department store level (Underhill, 2004). Mass merchandisers were comprised of drug, grocery, and discounts stores (e.g. Rite Aid w, Giant w, and Wal-Mart w ) and sold brands such as Revlon w, CoverGirl w, and Maybelline w. Cosmetics sold in department stores (e.g. Lancôme w, Estée Lauder w, and Clinique w ) were more expensive giving the false perception of significantly better quality (Underhill, 2004). The distinction between these cosmetics levels was coined the difference between mass and class. Today, there is no longer a definitive difference between cosmetic choices, as many women purchase them from a variety of channels. For example, a consumer may buy CoverGirl w eye shadow from the drug store, but M A C w foundation from the department store. A well-developed and established brand name is vital in the cosmetics industry. Roy Morgan identified ten consumer segments (Roy Morgan Values Segments), often applied to the cosmetics market. Using the value segments, a perceptual map can be created showing the placement of specific brands in comparison to their competitors. According to Bulace from Roy Morgan Research (Bulace, 2000)), brands can be nurtured and their relationship with customers can be cultivated to hold an existence like living entities in the minds of consumers. Bulace (2000) also illustrates the relationship between brand qualities and human qualities as: The way these brands speak (the style and tone of their advertising) determines the audience because the way we speak, as well as what we say, determines who will listen (Bulace, 2000, p. 20). Brand personality Brand perceptions are the attitudes, perspectives, and views consumers hold toward a brand. Various traits concerning the brand may influence the development of a positive brand attitude. Brand personality is defined as the set of human characteristics associated with a brand (Aaker, 1997, p. 347). Brand personality, which includes product-related attributes and symbolic associations consumers have with a brand or product, influences brand image and brand perceptions. Using a brand personality scale, Aaker (1997) defined five dimensions of brand personality: (1) sincerity; (2) excitement; (3) competence; (4) sophistication; and (5) ruggedness.

4 Each of these five dimensions encompasses several corresponding adjectives. For example, sincerity includes adjectives such as honesty and genuineness, whereas ruggedness is described by strong and outdoorsy. Brand personality can be used to differentiate a brand within a product category and provide characteristics that can be used to market a brand. It is developed and defined by advertisers in hopes that consumers will associate their brand with specific adjectives or imageries. When purchasing a brand, consumers are purchasing the symbolic meaning associated with the product in addition to the physical product. In essence, they are purchasing the brand image they perceive to be attached to the product. Brand personality can be used to convey one s ideal self or different versions of the self, as well as, one s perceptions and evaluations of the brand. For example, brand personality can be applied to an individual s own personality. Previous research has suggested consumers prefer certain brands when the brand personality parallels the consumer s own personality or the personality they hope to achieve (Malhotra, 1981; Sirgy, 1982). For example, Craik (1993, p. 162) explains that From the consumer s point of view, buying cosmetics is a process of matching the attributes of products with the ideal self (persona).... Brand personality also indicates how consumers judge the brand itself and value certain characteristics over others, which may ultimately influence their brand choice. For example, Kim (2000) found that although personality expectations for apparel brands differed, the brand personality of competent was found as a common characteristic for brands that were perceived favorably. Brand personality has many advantages for marketers including an increase in consumer preference and usage (Sirgy, 1982), an increase in consumer s trust and loyalty (Fournier, 1994), and the ability to produce emotional responses in consumers (Biel, 1993). Aaker (1997) provides numerous implications for brand personality research. First, for a brand to be successful, its personality must match the consumer s current or ideal human personality. This can be done by identifying the brand dimension that describes the brand, and ensuring the personalities of this dimension are adequately portrayed to the consumer. The ultimate goal is to ensure the brand personality influences the consumer s preference for a brand in a specific product category. Additionally, the Brand Personality Scale (Aaker, 1997) can be used to benchmark one s brand against competitors brands in the same product category. Companies can easily identify the most successful brands in a product category, learn which personalities this brand conveys, and copy or adjust their marketing strategies to capture the same and/or other market segments. Cosmetic usage and facial image Facial image and body image. Facial image can be defined as satisfaction with various areas of the face, which includes eyes, eyebrows, lips, cheeks, skin complexion, and the overall face. Research that exclusively examines facial image is scarce, but rather views facial image as a part of body image. Much research conducted on cosmetic usage examines body image as one entity. Thus, we have reviewed the literature on body image and cosmetic usage to apply it within the context of facial image. Body image is the feelings and attitudes one has toward his/her own appearance. Body image is described as a multi-dimensional attitude influenced by experiences of the body, particularly based on experiences with appearance (Cash and Henry, 1995; Facial image and cosmetic usage 167

5 JFMM 12,2 168 Cash and Labarge, 1996). Kaiser (1997, p. 98) describes body image as the mental picture one has of their body at any given time. Regardless of objective evaluations from others, body image is how you see yourself in terms of physical characteristics and is a collection of feelings and perceptions about your body. Strong positive relationships have been found between one s body image and self-esteem and self-confidence (e.g., Jung and Lennon, 2003). Body image includes various attributes of the body such as weight, height, physical attractiveness, and facial image. A representative national survey by Cash and Henry (1995) of 803 adult women, ages 18 through 70 in the USA, reported some interesting findings related to the body images of women. This study found almost 50 percent of women held negative evaluations of their appearance and significant evaluations of body dissatisfaction. Negative evaluations of body image and appearance of American women appear to have accelerated through the years (Cash and Henry, 1995). Cosmetic usage, body image, and physical attractiveness. Cash and Cash (1982) examined many effects of body image on cosmetic usage. Women with poorer body images who were unsatisfied with their entire physical appearance had recently increased the number of cosmetic products they applied and the number of situations in which they wore makeup. Also, women who were more judgmental of their physical appearance had longer cosmetic application times. Using the Situational Cosmetics Use Inventory to assess cosmetic usage in various situations, Cash and Cash (1982) found those women who used more cosmetic products also tended to use these products in more situations, as compared to women who did not use an extensive number of products. They suggested that wearing cosmetics in more situations leads women to be more attentive to how others perceive them. Those less concerned with their physical attractiveness in social situations were less likely to use cosmetics in various situations. Finally, they found that women who used cosmetics in a routine pattern were more satisfied with their facial features, as compared to those who did not have a consistent pattern of use. Also, a study by Forbes et al. (n.d.) found women who idealized women in traditional roles were more likely to use cosmetics in the pursuit of beauty. Similar to other forms of appearance-related products, women use cosmetics to correct or modify their flawed self-images. Cash and Cash (1982) found routine cosmetics use to be associated with facial satisfaction reflecting the psychological success that many women experience after enhancing their physical appearance. Similarly, Cash et al. (1989) reported that female participants reported more satisfaction with their faces and with their overall appearance and believed they would be regarded by peers as more attractive when they were wearing their makeup than when they were not. Also, the participants often overestimated their physical attractiveness when wearing makeup and were even more likely to underestimate their attractiveness in the absence of makeup. A positive relationship was found between the amount of cosmetics use and appearance satisfaction as the participants stated a higher appearance satisfaction when wearing more cosmetics (Cash et al., 1989). The researchers concluded that facial cosmetics influence women s own self-perceptions and body image. Enhancing physical appearance will be especially rewarding if appearance is important for the evaluation of self and others (Jung and Lennon, 2003). Specifically to this study, the attractiveness of one s face may influence how individuals evaluate their own appearance, and in return, affect their facial image.

6 Brown et al. (1986) found evidence that individuals who are more attractive may pay greater attention to and are more involved with their appearance. Moreover, McDonald and Eilenfield (1980) found both males and females spent more time looking at their reflections if they were more physically attractive. Therefore, it is possible that those individuals who have a more attractive appearance may be more involved, and subsequently more likely to actively participate in self-expression through grooming behaviors. In support of this argument, Cash (1988) suggested that physical appearance might be partially self-created in response to situational norms, self-presentational goals for social image and body image, and mood states. Finally, individuals are known to use cosmetics and grooming behaviors to manage and control not only their social impressions, but also their self-image (Cash et al., 1989). Thus, previous studies suggest that the use of cosmetics is a tool for self-presentation and social impression management. The literature confirming the positive link between body image and cosmetic use provides strong support for a possible relationship between facial image and cosmetic use. Consumers image of themselves in relation to satisfaction with their facial features provides a reasonable explanation on how consumers may use cosmetics to enhance one s facial appearance or feelings about themselves. Consumers satisfaction with their face (facial image) and related cosmetic use is predicted to have an effect on consumers impressions of various cosmetic brands. For example, Tidwell et al. ( ) found that people use products to enhance self-image, and according to Wood (2004), participants chose specific brands to convey a certain picture of oneself to society. Thus, the characteristics of a brand s personality that consumers consider as being favorable (positive brand attitude) may vary based on how consumers feel about their face (facial image) and the ways they use cosmetics (cosmetic usage). Purpose of study The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship of facial image, cosmetic usage, and perceptions of brand personality. Based on prior research, the following three research questions were developed: RQ1. How does facial image influence cosmetic usage (quantity and pattern of use)? RQ2. How do facial image and cosmetic usage (quantity and pattern of use) influence perceptions of brand personality? RQ3. How do facial image, cosmetic usage factors (quantity and pattern of use), and brand personality influence brand attitude? Figure 1 provides an illustration of the relationships among variables addressed in the research questions. Methodology Data collection An electronic survey was administered to a randomly drawn list of female students enrolled at a mid-atlantic university at the time of data collection. A total of 225 female students participated in the survey, ages 18 to 49 years, with ages 18 through 22 representing 82 percent of the entire sample. Overall, 86 percent of the women were enrolled in all academic years at the undergraduate level and 12 percent were enrolled Facial image and cosmetic usage 169

7 JFMM 12,2 170 Figure 1. Relationship among variables studied at the graduate level. A wide variety of academic majors were represented. In terms of cosmetic purchases, 40 percent of the participants stated they spent under $50 annually on cosmetics, while 31 percent spent $50 to $100. Only 18 percent spent $101 to $200 and 10 percent spent over $200. Measures The electronic survey included items measuring facial image, cosmetic usage, brand personality, brand attitude, and personal questions. Prior to the survey, a simple open-ended survey was conducted on 44 female subjects enrolled in an upper-level fashion merchandising class to determine the three most popular cosmetic brands used by female students. In the pre-survey, students were asked to list the five cosmetic brands they used most often in order of preference. The top three brands (M A C w, Clinique w, and CoverGirl w ) were included in the electronic survey. Table I provides a brief description of the three brands used in this study. Facial image. The facial image scale asks participants to rate five areas of their face and entire face on two scales: unsatisfied/satisfied and unimportant/important. The six aspects of the face are eyes, eyebrows, lips, cheeks, skin complexion, and the entire face. The basis for this measure was taken from the Body Areas Satisfaction Scale (BASS) of the Multidimensional Body Self-Relations Questionnaire (MBSRQ; Brown et al., 1990), a widely used index of body site satisfaction, in which individuals rated how dissatisfied/satisfied they felt with different areas of the body. These two scales

8 Cosmetic brand Description M A Cw Cliniquew CoverGirlw M A Cw is for every age, sex, and race, but specifically targets professional makeup artists and fashion forward consumers (The Estée Lauder Companies Incw, 2007). M A Cw is sold in boutiques and department stores in the United States Cliniquew emphasizes the importance of quality skin care in makeup products. Cliniquew products are fragrance-free and allergy-tested by dermatologists (The Estée Lauder Companies Incw, 2007). Recently, Cliniquew has started to target men in who are concerned with their appearance and image, by promoting their skin care line for men (New Media Age, 2006). Cliniquew is commonly sold in various department stores in the United States CoverGirlw is for women of all ages who want a clean, fresh and natural look. (Proctor & Gamblew, 2007). Compared to M A Cw and Cliniquew brands, CoverGirlw is lower-priced and sold at discount stores such as grocery stores, drug stores, and mass-retailers in the United States. Beginning in the fall of 2005, CoverGirlw began to focus on American women 35 and older for their anti-aging product line (O Loughlin, 2006) Products offered Makeup, Skin Care, Fragrances, and Accessories Makeup, Skin Care, Fragrances, and Accessories Makeup and Accessories Facial image and cosmetic usage 171 Table I. Cosmetic brand descriptions also use five-point Likert-type scales. For each facial area, a score was calculated by weighting the satisfaction level (1 ¼ unsatisfied, 5 ¼ satisfied) of each facial area by its importance (1 ¼ unimportant, 5 ¼ important). Next, all items were summed to derive a composite score representing facial image. The more participants consider facial parts important and are satisfied with those areas, the more participants are satisfied with their facial features and overall face. Thus, a higher score on the facial image scale reflected a positive facial image. Cosmetic usage. The cosmetic usage section was adapted from the Cash Cosmetics Use Inventory (CCUI; Cash and Cash, 1982; Cash et al., 1989) and asked participants to indicate their usage of various cosmetic products in certain settings. More specifically, participants were asked to rate how frequently they use each of the eleven facial cosmetic products in each of the ten different life situations on a 4-point Likert-type scale (1 ¼ never; 2 ¼ occasionally; 3 ¼ usually; 4 ¼ always). The cosmetic products are foundation, face powder, concealer, mascara, eye liner, eye shadow, eyebrow pencil, lipstick/lip color, lip gloss, lip liner, and blush. The situations tested include both public and private encounters with females only, males only, and both genders simultaneously. Examples include attending class, shopping with female friends, an informal party with a date, exercising with male and female friends, and staying indoors with female friends. The CCUI matrix based on frequency of usage and life situations then generated the quantity of product use and the quality or pattern of product use. The original sale included 15 facial cosmetics products for 12 different life situations, but the modifications for the CCUI were taken place by administering the entire CCUI to a select group of students and adjusting the situations and products according to their feedback.

9 JFMM 12,2 172 Two indices derived from the CCUI, the quantity of product use and the pattern of product use, were determined by: (1) computing the mean of the 11 product use ratings for each situation; (2) computing the mean (M) of these means (i.e. those computed in 1) across the situations; and (3) computing the variance (SD 2 ) of means across situations. The grand mean computed in 2) represents the quantity of cosmetics use, while the variance comuputed in 3) represents the qualitative pattern of use index. The higher standard deviation scores mirror higher situationality of product use, whereas lower scores represent a dispositional pattern of use (Cash and Cash, 1982). The former refers to using cosmetics according to situations with varying degree, whereas the latter refers to using cosmetics in a routine pattern regardless of situations. Composite scores for quantity and pattern of cosmetic use were considered global indices and calculation of reliability statistics was not appropriate. Brand personality. The brand personality scale was modified from Aaker s (1997) Brand Personality Scale. Participants were instructed to imagine each brand as possessing human qualities. Then, the participants rated, on a five-point scale (1 ¼ strongly disagree; 5 ¼ strongly agree), the extent to which they feel each personality characteristic describes each brand. This scale measures how the three cosmetics brands are perceived along 15 brand personality characteristics. The personality characteristics include items such as down-to-earth, daring, reliable, upper class, and tough. These 15 personality characteristics ultimately describe the five dimensions stated previously (sincerity, excitement, competence, sophistication, and ruggedness). Table II provides a summary of the brand personality characteristics. Brand personality dimensions were considered global indices and conceptually not appropriate to measure reliability statistics. Table II. Summary of Brand Personality items Brand personality dimensions Sincerity Excitement Competence Sophistication Ruggedness Source: Aaker, 1997 Items Down-to-earth Honest Wholesome Cheerful Daring Spirited Imaginative Up-to-date Reliable Intelligent Successful Upper class Charming Outdoorsy Tough

10 Brand attitude. The brand attitudes scales include two items: negative/positive and dislike/like. Brand attitude was measured for each of the three cosmetic brands. Mean scores were derived using items measuring each of the five brand personality measures and brand attitude. Reliability statistic for the brand attitude measure yielded a Cronbach s alpha ranging from 0.90 to 0.92 across the three brands. Sample characteristics. Demographic questions concerning the participants personal background were included in the survey. Questions include the amount spent on cosmetics annually, age, gender, major, academic major, and current level/year at the university. Data analysis and results First, mean and correlation tables were developed to initially examine the variables in the study (see Table III). The overall mean for facial image was moderate (M ¼ 96.58) with 150 being the highest score possible. The mean score representing the quantity of cosmetic used across situations was low at 1.07 with four being the highest possible score. The pattern of use represented by the standard deviation across the mean cosmetic usage score for each subject was a moderate Next, consumer perceptions of brand personality traits for each brand were examined. Consumer perceptions for personality traits excitement, competence, and sophistication for the M A C w brand were moderately high (M. 3.50) with mean scores ranging from 3.63 to Competence was a highly regarded trait for Clinique w (M ¼ 4.05). Personality traits sincerity (M ¼ 3.85) and sophistication (M ¼ 3.75) were also favorable for Clinique w. CoverGirl w showed a high score for personality trait Sincerity (M ¼ 3.81). Consumer attitudes for all three brands (brand attitude) were favorable with mean scores ranging from 3.69 to Results from the correlation table showed indications of relationships among the study variables. Facial image, cosmetic usage, and brand personality A multiple regression analysis was first conducted to determine the relationship between cosmetic usage factors and facial image. It was determined that only quantity of cosmetic use was influenced by facial image (b ¼ 0.14, p, 0.05). Multiple regression analyses were then employed to test how each dimension of brand personality was influenced by facial image and the two factors of cosmetic usage. These results are summarized for each of the three brands, as seen in Table IV. Facial image influenced perceptions of competence (b ¼ 0.19, p, 0.01) of the M A C w Brand and Sincerity (b ¼ 0.15, p, 0.05) of the Clinique w brand. The quantity factor of cosmetic usage was a significant predictor for the excitement (b ¼ 0.15, p, 0.05) and sophistication (b ¼ 0.15, p, 0.05) dimensions for the M A C w brand. Pattern of use was a significant predictor for the excitement (b ¼ 0.17, p, 0.05) dimension of the Clinique w brand. Facial image, cosmetic usage, brand personality, and brand attitude A multiple regression analysis was used to determine the relationship the following variables have with brand attitude: facial image, cosmetic usage (quantity and pattern of use), and the five personality dimensions. For the M A C w brand, facial image (b ¼ 0.15, p, 0.01) and quantity of cosmetic usage (b ¼ 0.17, p, 0.01) were significant predictors of positive brand attitudes. Additionally, Excitement (b ¼ 0.39, Facial image and cosmetic usage 173

11 JFMM 12,2 174 Table III. Correlation for study constructs Items M A Cw brand 1. Facial image * ** 0.15 * *** Cosmetic usage 2. Quantity *** ** 0.13 * 0.22 ** *** 3. Pattern * ** 0.06 Brand personality 4. Sincerity ** 0.38 *** 0.26 *** 0.32 *** 0.25 *** 5. Excitement *** 0.55 *** * 0.54 *** 6. Competence *** *** 7. Sophistication * 0.34 *** 8. Ruggedness Brand attitude 1.00 Mean SD Cliniquew brand 1. Facial image * ** Cosmetic usage 2. Quantity ** 0.22 ** * 0.19 ** *** 3. Pattern ** 0.16 * 0.16 * 0.16 * *** Brand personality 4. Sincerity ** 0.51 *** 0.31 *** 0.19 ** 0.48 *** 5. Excitement *** 0.37 *** 0.21 *** 0.36 *** 6. Competence *** * 0.47 ** 7. Sophistication *** 8. Ruggedness Brand attitude 1.00 Mean SD (continued)

12 Items CoverGirlw brand 1. Facial image * Cosmetic usage 2. Quantity ** * 0.13 * 3. Pattern Brand personality 4. Sincerity *** 0.46 *** 0.28 *** 0.24 *** 0.33 *** 5. Excitement *** 0.57 *** 0.23 *** 0.39 *** 6. Competence *** 0.26 *** 0.60 *** 7. Sophistication *** 0.50 *** 8. Ruggedness *** 9. Brand attitude 1.00 Mean SD Note: * p, 0.05, ** p, 0.01, p, Facial image score is a composite score with level of satisfaction weighted by importance for each facial area. Facial image-related items were measured on a 5-point scale. Cosmetic usage quantity was measured on a 4-point scale. For discussion on cosmetic usage pattern, please see methodology section. Items measuring brand personality were measured on a 5-point scale Facial image and cosmetic usage 175 Table III.

13 JFMM 12,2 176 Table IV. Multiple regression results M A Cw Brand Cliniquew CoverGirlw Dependent variable b R-square b R-square b R-square Independent variables Cosmetic usage: quantity Facial image 0.14 * 0.14 * 0.14 * Cosmetic usage: pattern Facial image Brand personality: sincerity Facial image * 0.04 Cosmetic usage: quantity Cosmetic usage: pattern ** Brand personality: excitement Facial image Cosmetic usage: quantity 0.15 * Cosmetic usage: pattern * 0.04 Brand personality: competence Facial image 0.19 ** Cosmetic usage: quantity Cosmetic usage: pattern Brand personality: sophistication Facial image Cosmetic usage: quantity 0.15 * Cosmetic usage: pattern Brand personality: ruggedness Facial image Cosmetic usage: quantity Cosmetic usage: pattern Brand attitude Facial image 0.15 ** Cosmetic usage: Quantity 0.17 ** Cosmetic usage: pattern Sincerity *** 0.03 Excitement 0.39 *** 0.18 ** 0.02 Competence 0.23 ** 0.25 ** 0.43 *** Sophistication ** Ruggedness Note: * p, 0.05, ** p, 0.01, *** p, 0.001

14 p, 0.001) and competence (b ¼ 0.23, p, 0.01) both influenced the brand attitudes of M A C w. The brand attitudes of Clinique w were significantly related to the brand personality dimensions of sincerity (b ¼ 0.26, p, 0.001), Excitement (b ¼ 0.18, p, 0.01), and competence (b ¼ 0.25, p, 0.01). Facial image and cosmetic usage factors did not influence brand attitudes for the Clinique w brand. Finally, for CoverGirl w only two brand personality dimensions, competence (b ¼ 0.43, p, 0.001) and sophistication (b ¼ 0.19, p, 0.01), were predictors of brand attitude. No significant results were found for facial image, cosmetic usage, and other brand personality dimensions for the CoverGirl w brand. Facial image and cosmetic usage 177 Discussion and implications Young female consumers perceived M A C w to be a relatively exciting, competent, and sophisticated brand. Clinique w was perceived to be sincere, competent, and sophisticated and CoverGirl w was perceived to be competent. Consistent with findings by Kim (2000), the brand personality of competence emerged as a characteristic found across all three cosmetic brand types. Comparing across the three brands, M A C w was the only brand with a high mean score (M. 3.50) for the brand personality of excitement and the lowest score on sincerity. Clinique w had the highest score on sophisticated. These results provide evidence that each cosmetic brand holds a unique set of brand personality traits identified by consumers. Although the brand personality of competence might be a universal trait desired in cosmetic brands, other personality traits differed. Overall, consumers perceived all three cosmetic brands positively (brand attitude) with the Clinique w brand being the highest scored. Facial image and cosmetic usage Facial image influenced the quantity of cosmetic usage, or amount of cosmetics used. (Question 1). The current study found consumer s facial image to influence the total quantity of cosmetics used, but not the variation in quantity in different situations. Although descriptive statistics report that different patterns of cosmetic use based on different situations exist, we found no evidence to suggest that an individual s facial image may affect the pattern of cosmetic use. The current findings contradict prior reports by Cash and Cash (1982) that cosmetic usage is affected by one s overall body image and not specifically by facial image, and the level of dissatisfaction with one s physical appearance increases the number of cosmetic products applied. Also, our findings do not support Cash and Cash s (1982) findings that women who were satisfied with their facial features were more likely to use cosmetics in a routine pattern rather than a varied pattern. Instead, our study found facial image to positively correspond to the quantity of cosmetics used. Thus, the conclusion can be drawn that women who are more satisfied with their facial image tend to use more cosmetics. The cause and effect relationship between facial image and cosmetic usage should be further examined. That is, it could be equally understood that cosmetic usage increases facial image, as well as, those consumers with positive facial images have more confidence in using cosmetics to further enhance and creatively manipulate their facial features resulting in higher levels of cosmetic use.

15 JFMM 12,2 178 Facial image, cosmetic usage, and brand personality Results indicate a relationship exists between facial image and brand personality and between cosmetic usage factors and brand personality (Question 2). Our study found a positive facial image influences perceptions of competence in the M A C w brand and sincerity in the Clinique w brand. These findings indicate that women s satisfaction with their facial image does indeed influence how they perceive the brand. Also, a relationship was found between cosmetic usage (quantity and pattern) and brand personality for two brands: M A C w and Clinique w. For the M A C w brand, higher quantity users of cosmetics perceived the M A C w brand to be exciting and sophisticated whereas, women who reported a more varied pattern of usage perceived the Clinique w brand to be exciting. These findings provide important implications for marketers in terms of strategies for brand management. By understanding consumer perceptions of brands in relation to their cosmetic usage patterns and facial image, marketers are able to develop brand images by emphasizing and leveraging their knowledge about their consumers. For example, in relation to the M A C w brand, the excitement characteristic appears to be a very important characteristic for consumers with higher levels of cosmetic usage. In addition, this particular characteristic is unique in comparison to the more traditional or conservative image held by its closest competitors Clinique w and CoverGirl w. Facial image, cosmetic usage, brand personality, and brand attitude Facial image and quantity of cosmetic usage influenced positive brand attitudes for only the M A C w brand, however, results concerning brand personality characteristics were more varied (Question 3). Our results suggest the brand personality of competence to be important across all three brands, suggesting that successful brands are viewed as being competent, a characteristic or brand image that is earned. In regards to other brand personality traits, our study found a different group of brand personality traits to positively influence brand attitude for the three cosmetic brands. For example, competence and sophistication are the two main brand personality traits that influence positive perceptions for the CoverGirl w brands. Therefore, the CoverGirl w brand should focus on the prior two brand personality traits to improve the image of their brand, as the female participants viewed these as the factors which determine their feelings toward the brand. In another example, for the Clinique w brand, consumer perceptions for the brand personality trait of excitement were not high (M ¼ 3.31). However, findings showing that excitement influences positive feelings towards the Clinique w brand indicate that marketers for this particular brand will need to focus and emphasize this characteristic as part of the brand s image. This research study contributes to the body of knowledge in the area of consumer behavior and cosmetics by examining consumer perceptions and preferences for brands in conjunction with personal characteristics (cosmetic usage and facial image). From this study, a better understanding of cosmetic consumers is gained. Findings from this study also provide companies with valuable information to apply to their marketing strategies. By investigating how facial image and cosmetic usage determine cosmetic brand perceptions, companies can improve their marketing strategies to enhance customer satisfaction and increase their customer base. Moreover, by identifying the brand personalities that attract certain types of consumers, companies

16 can pinpoint the characteristics customers look for in a product, which in turn can be used to enhance brand images. Further research must be conducted to better understand cosmetic consumers. Using cosmetic brands most popular among young college women, the results are confined to young college women and results for a broader population may differ. It would be valuable to determine the differences between different age groups, cultures, and residential areas (urban vs. rural) throughout the country. Moreover, further research is needed in examining the relationship between cosmetic usage factors and facial image. Also, future studies may examine the entire physical appearance (in addition to facial features) in relation to cosmetic usage. This would show whether consumers who are dissatisfied with other areas of the body have a different cosmetic usage pattern. Additionally, brand personalities for cosmetic brands can be compared to consumers own personalities. This would explain if consumers choose cosmetic brands that parallel their own personalities, or if they choose brands that portray the personality they desire to achieve. Finally, it would be worthwhile to include a variety of different cosmetic brands with different personalities to determine the effects on the participants perceptions. Note 1. All brand names with w notations are registered trademarks of their respective owners. Facial image and cosmetic usage 179 References Aaker, J.L. (1997), Dimensions of brand personality, Journal of Marketing Research, Vol. 34, pp Biel, A. (1993), Converting image into equity, in Aaker, D.A. and Biel, A. (Eds), Brand Equity and Advertising, Laurence Erlbaum Associates, Hillsdale, NJ. Brown, T.A., Cash, T.F. and Mikulka, P.J. (1990), Attitudinal body-image assessment: factor analysis of the Body-Self Relations Questionnaire, Journal of Personality Assessment, Vol. 55, pp Brown, T.A., Cash, T.F. and Noles, S.W. (1986), Perception of physical attractiveness among college students: selected determinants and methodological matters, The Journal of Social Psychology, Vol. 126 No. 3, pp Bulace, W. (2000), Is branding more than a cosmetic issue?, Retail World, Vol. 53 No. 15, p. 20. Cash, T.F. (1988), The psychology of cosmetics: a research bibliography, Perceptual and Motor Skills, Vol. 66 No. 2, pp Cash, T.F. and Cash, D.W. (1982), Women s use of cosmetics: psychosocial correlates and consequences, International Journal of Cosmetic Science, Vol. 4, pp Cash, T.F. and Henry, P.E. (1995), Women s body images: the results of a national survey in the USA, Sex Roles, Vol. 33 Nos 1/2, pp Cash, T.F. and Labarge, A.S. (1996), Development of the appearance schemas inventory: a new cognitive body-image assessment, Cognitive Therapy and Research, Vol. 20 No. 1, pp Cash, T.F., Dawson, K., Davis, P. and Bowen, M. (1989), Effects of cosmetics use on the physical attractiveness and body image of American college women, Journal of Social Psychology, Vol. 129 No. 3, pp Craik, J. (1993), The Face of Fashion: Cultural Studies in Fashion, Routledge, London.

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18 Underhill, P. (2004), Is there a better way of selling beauty? In his latest book, Paco Underhill takes readers on a tour of the mall (Health & Beauty Merchandiser), Retail Merchandiser, 44(4), 24(2), available at: General BusinessFile ASAP online database (accessed June 6, 2004). Wood, L.M. (2004), Dimensions of brand purchasing behaviour: consumers in the age group, Journal of Consumer Behaviour, Vol. 4 No. 1, pp Corresponding author Hye-Shin Kim can be contacted at: hskim@udel.edu Facial image and cosmetic usage 181 To purchase reprints of this article please reprints@emeraldinsight.com Or visit our web site for further details: