JARLSHOF PREHISTORIC AND NORSE SETTLEMENT

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1 Property in Care (PIC) ID: PIC183 Designations: Scheduled Monument (90174) Taken into State care: 1925 (Guardianship) Last reviewed: 2015 HISTORIC ENVIRONMENT SCOTLAND STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE JARLSHOF PREHISTORIC AND NORSE SETTLEMENT We continually revise our Statements of Significance, so they may vary in length, format and level of detail. While every effort is made to keep them up to date, they should not be considered a definitive or final assessment of our properties. Historic Environment Scotland Scottish Charity No. SC Principal Office: Longmore House, Salisbury Place, Edinburgh EH9 1SH

2 Historic Environment Scotland Scottish Charity No. SC Principal Office: Longmore House, Salisbury Place, Edinburgh EH9 1SH

3 JARLSHOF SYNOPSIS The property known as Jarlshof is located at the southern tip of the Shetland Islands, overlooking the sheltered waters of the West Voe of Sumburgh, and about 22 miles due south of Lerwick. The three-acre site has been described as one of the most remarkable archaeological sites ever excavated in the British Isles. The 17 th -century laird s house known formerly as the Old House of Sumburgh, but as Jarlshof since the publication of Sir Walter Scott s novel The Pirate in 1822, has long been a familiar landmark, but the remarkable archaeological site under and around it was first discovered in 1897 following a violent storm. Excavations undertaken intermittently since then, most notably by John Hamilton for the Ministry of Works in , have revealed a site of extraordinary interest and complexity, with remains reaching over 4000 years, from the Bronze Age in the 3 rd Millennium BC to the 18 th century AD. The physical remains visible today display an unparalleled range of surviving settlement and building forms. These include prehistoric cellular structures and roundhouses of various construction types, including a broch; a Norse farm and associated buildings of medieval date; and culminating in a substantial latemedieval/early modern laird s house. The range of artefacts and other objects recovered represents one of the best collections from any site in the British Isles. The property passed into State care in It is Historic Environment Scotland s only staffed property in Shetland. CHARACTER OF THE MONUMENT Historical Overview: BC a Bronze-Age settlement is established at the site. c. 800 BC the village, now including a smith s workshop, is well established at the east edge of the site. c BC the first Iron-Age village is built on top of its Bronze-Age predecessor. This village occupies the SE and SW edges of the site. late centuries BC/ early centuries AD after what seems to be a break in occupation, demonstrated by deposits of sterile windblown sand, a broch and courtyard are built on the site. An aisled roundhouse, partly supported by the outer face of the broch, and byre follow. Next follows a series of wheelhouses, including one built inside the broch, which seems now to be reduced in height. At an even later date, sunken passage-houses are dug into the sand/midden deposits to the east of the broch. 790s the first recorded raids on northern Britain by Vikings from Norway. c. AD 850 emigrants from southern Norway settle in southern Shetland, including Jarlshof. Their simple farmhouse settlement here develops and expands westward over the next three centuries, although it always remains a farm. 13 th century as the maritime power of Norway wanes, so the importance of trading links with Scotland grows. In 1236 Magnus, son of Gille Brigte, 1/11

4 mormaer of Angus, becomes the first Scot to become Earl of Orkney, under King Haakon Haakonson. At some point during the century (or into the next) a new farmhouse is built to the east of its predecessor. By this date the lands around Jarlshof belong to the Domkirk of Bergen (Norway), and the farmer at Jarlshof seems to be keeping up with the latest architectural fashion in Norway the marriage of James III of Scotland to Margaret, daughter of Christian I of Norway, results in Shetland (and Orkney) becoming part of Scotland. In the following year (1470) James III buys out William Sinclair, Earl of Orkney, granting him in return a pension and the castle of Ravenscraig, in Fife. The Scottish Crown thereafter governs the Northern Isles through tacksmen, or lessees of the island revenues Robert Stewart, an illegitimate son of James V and half-brother of Queen Mary, is granted the feu of the royal and earldom estates of Orkney and Shetland, together with the post of sheriff. In 1581 he is elevated to the Earldom of Orkney and Lordship of Shetland by Mary s son, James VI. c.1591 Earl Robert s son, Patrick, already styled Lord of Shetland whilst his father yet lives, builds a new residence at Sumburgh variously called the New Hall and the House of Soundburghe (Sumburgh). The property comprises a single range (now the north range) with a courtyard to its south. In 1592 Patrick feus some adjacent land to William Bruce of Symbister, and gives him the keeping of his new house during his absence. In 1593 Patrick succeeds to the Earldom of Orkney and Lordship of Shetland following his father s death at the Bishop s Palace, Kirkwall. By 1600 he is constructing a major new residence in Shetland, at Scalloway William Bruce does a deal with Earl Patrick whereby he exchanges his land at Sumburgh for the lands of Sandwick Patrick reneges on the deal and reserves to himself the richt and titill of the houss laitlie bigit be the said nobill Lord upone the ground of the saidis landis of Soundburghe on the south syde of the new hall, thus implying that William Bruce has added the south range during his tenure. William is minded not to move. The dispute between them comes to a head in 1508 when Earl Patrick makes off with over 8000 Scots worth of goods Patrick s many quarrels with his Shetland subjects force him to flee the Northern Isles for Edinburgh, where he is detained and taken to Dumbarton Castle. 17 th century - the Old House of Sumburgh is added to, with ranges along the west and east sides of the courtyard. By 1700 it is ruinous. 18 th century - the courtyard is pressed into use as a small graveyard. Local tradition records that the graves are those of mariners wrecked on the nearby shore. However, it is possible that the courtyard is used as a burial ground when the nearby church at Quendale is abandoned after a great sandblow Walter Scott visits the Old House of Sumburgh and uses it as the model for Jarlshof, the residence of the fictitious Mr Mertoun in his novel The Pirate, published in The name Jarlshof has stuck ever since Sumburgh House (now a hotel) is built on land east of the Old House of Sumburgh for the Bruces of Sumburgh the archaeological site under and around Jarlshof is discovered by John Bruce of Sumburgh, the landowner, following a violent storm. He partly explores it between then and /11

5 1925 John Bruce entrusts the site into State care. Between then and the outbreak of WWII, further excavations are conducted at the site, accompanied by consolidation, all at the direction of the Ministry of Works. The culmination of all this work is the construction of a small museum building at the east side of the site, one of the first new style centres built in Scotland by the Ministry of Works (a similar building is also erected at Skara Brae) RAF Sumburgh is opened a short distance to the north of Jarlshof major excavations are conducted at the site under the direction of John Hamilton, Inspector of Ancient Monuments. These largely inform our current understanding of the site. During the excavations, parts are removed (eg, the west range of the Old House of Sumburgh) to enable examination of underlying deposits a major new discovery is made in the vicinity when a road realignment associated with building a new airport terminal uncovers Old Scatness, occupied from the Iron Age through to Viking times. Excavations between 1995 and 2006 reveal a major settlement complex, including an Iron-Age village complete with broch, and remarkably similar to Jarlshof though not quite as ancient. This is also now a major heritage attraction, operated by Shetland Amenity Trust (SAT) the lighthouse buildings at Sumburgh Head Lighthouse (built around the time Scott s The Pirate was published) are opened by HRH The Princess Royal as yet another tourist attraction in the locality, also operated by SAT. Archaeological Overview Introduction The site known as Jarlshof is generally acknowledged to be one of the most remarkable archaeological sites in the British Isles. Within the relatively confined space of three acres are exposed the remains of three extensive village settlements occupied from Bronze Age to Norse times. The site was first discovered in 1897 by the landowner, John Bruce of Sumburgh, who explored it between then and Following its transfer into State care in 1925, further, and extensive, excavations were carried out for the Office of Works, directed by a number of leading archaeologists of their day A O Curle ( ), V G Childe & J S Richardson (1937), and J R C Hamilton ( ). These established the main chronological framework for the site. Since then, several small-scale excavations have taken place, mostly in advance of, or during, necessary site works (eg, sea wall defence construction). The latest was a minor watching brief in It should be borne in mind that the existing site of Jarlshof represents only a proportion of the original complex established some 5000 to 6000 years ago. Since then the sea has risen, drowning and eroding the land, and the point where the inhabitants beached their boats now lies probably a few metres below the sea and many metres offshore. The site chronology The chronology established by the excavations is as follows: 3/11

6 4/11 (1) BC a Bronze Age settlement was established. The surviving remains comprise the fragmentary walls and hearths of two buildings and associated middens (rubbish dumps) at the NE edge of the site. Artefacts recovered included 100s of stone tools and pottery sherds, as well as decorative objects, inc. a stone club and cleaver for killing and cutting whales, and a fine bone plaque; (2) c.800 BC by the late Bronze Age a village was well established. The buildings had distinct cells formed by thick buttresses extending into the living space, of a type that can be traced back well before 2000 BC in Shetland. One building was in use as a smithy, trained in an Irish tradition, casting weapons, tools and ornaments. Other objects recovered included many stone and bone tools, pottery, and four steatite (soapstone) bowls. It seems that the village was eventually overblown by sand. (3) BC during the early Iron Age a second village arose, built on top of its predecessor. The houses were circular and had, at best, thin internal piers supporting the roof, as distinct from the thick buttresses of their Bronze Age precursors, thereby giving more space. Two of the houses had souterrains (underground storage cellars) attached. There is evidence for field walls. The finds showed that the invention of iron had eased some tasks involving cutting and piercing. They also demonstrated that the villagers farmed the land and fished the seas. (4) late centuries BC/early centuries AD after what seems to have been a further break in occupation, demonstrated by deposits of sterile windblown sand, a broch was built on the site, followed shortly after by a courtyard attached to it. The courtyard was then partially built upon by an aisled roundhouse, supported in part by the outer face of the broch. It was accompanied by a byre. Next followed a series of wheelhouses, including one built inside the broch (as at Clickhimin and Mousa), which seems now to have been reduced in height. These wheelhouses had roofs supported on radial piers, whence the name. Late in the sequence sunken passage-houses were dug into the sand/midden deposits east of the broch. The finds now included rotary querns for the first time, moulds for making bronze objects such as pins, painted pebbles such as have been found on Pictish sites elsewhere in northern Scotland, and a piece of slate with a Christian cross scratched on it, testifying to the arrival of Christianity. (5) c. AD a small Norse farm was built to the north of the broch complex. Comprising a house, byre, smithy and another building, over the course of a dozen or so generations it developed into a substantial farm complex. Around 1100 the nature of that farm materially changed. Although the original farm house remained important, indeed extended eastward, new, more substantial, houses were built to its west, on the site of the earlier outbuildings. Towards the end of the sequence, the original farmhouse became an outbuilding. The huge number of finds recovered included many bone objects, including combs and animalheaded pins paralleled from 11 th -century Dublin. Clearly Jarlshof was in touch with other parts of the Norse world. (6) c.13 th -/early 14 th -century 16 th century a new farmhouse, with a parallel attached barn and byre, was built to the east of its

7 predecessor. This complex too was modified numerous times over the course of the next two centuries or so. The existence of corn-drying kilns therein testifies to the deteriorating climate in later medieval times (Scotland s mini Ice Age ). (7) 1590s 1700 a new residence was built over and beside the broch. In its final form it comprised a walled courtyard with two substantial buildings - a two-storeyed building along the south side, and a lesser structure along the north. The residence was abandoned by 1700 but its courtyard was subsequently used as a temporary burial ground. Conclusions Unfortunately, the major excavations conducted either side of WWII were carried out without the benefit of modern scientific techniques, including dating and paleo-environmental analysis. As a result, the monument, particularly its prehistoric past, is poorly understood. Nevertheless, the surviving remains exhibit an extraordinary level of preservation and an extended time depth. Until recently, Jarlshof provided the main chronological baseline for Shetland s prehistoric and early historic archaeology. However, since the discovery of the nearby site at Old Scatness in 1975, and particularly as a result of the detailed archaeological examination of it between 1995 and 2006, enormously helpful corroborative information has become available for the Iron Age, Pictish and Norse periods at Jarlshof. Architectural/Artistic Overview: Jarlshof is not only a most remarkable archaeological site, it also displays an unrivalled range of surviving settlement and building forms reaching over 4000 years. These include Bronze Age cellular structures, roundhouses of different construction and period, souterrains, a broch, wheel-houses, passage-houses, Norse houses and associated buildings of various periods and uses, and culminating in a substantial late medieval/early modern laird s house, the original Jarlshof. There are five distinctive building types worth assessing in some detail the the souterrains, broch, wheelhouses, Norse farm buildings, and the Old House of Sumburgh. The souterrains Jarlshof has two souterrains (underground storage cellars). They belong to a widespread type of building found in Brittany, Cornwall and Ireland, as well as Scotland. Their design, function and date seem to vary from place to place. In Scotland there seem to be regional groups, ranging from the massive examples in eastern Scotland (eg, Ardestie, Carlungie and Tealing), averaging c. 46sq m in area, to the much smaller ones in the Northern Isles (eg, Grain and Rennibister), providing a meagre 5sq m of space. The latter seem to date much earlier than the former. Jarlshof s examples were dated to the mid 1 st millennium BC. The better preserved one has a low passage, 6m long, leading to a tiny chamber only 1.5m in all dimensions. 5/11

8 The wheelhouses Jarlshof has the best preserved late Iron-Age wheelhouses in Scotland. This house type seems to have emerged around the close of the 1 st millennium BC, probably as an ingenious way of overcoming the shortage of timber for roofing. They were still roundhouses, like their Iron Age predecessors, but they had internal piers of stone, radiating like spokes of a wheel, that served both to support the roof and to divide the floor area into compartments, all focussed on the hearth at the centre. They have been described as masterpieces of drystone construction, their intricate roofing requiring arguably as much skill to produce as broch towers (Armit). For some unexplained reason this type of building seems only to have become popular in Shetland and the Western Isles, and not one example has yet been found in Orkney. The broch The broch is still powerfully impressive despite having lost its southern half to the sea. Measuring 19.5m in diameter, its 5.2m-thick externally battered wall still stands c. 3m high. Although missing its entrance passage (lost to the sea) it still has evidence for two ground-floor wall cells and a scarcement 2.3m above the ground which supported an upper floor. There was a well/cistern in the floor. Brochs are a form of roundhouse found almost exclusively in northern and western Scotland. They belong to what is known by archaeologists as the Atlantic Roundhouse tradition, with origins (in northern Scotland so far only) in massive simple roundhouses (c BC) in date) and more widespread complex roundhouses (c BC). The taller brochs seem to appear c. 200 BC, reaching a peak in the first centuries BC and AD. Their precise function is still much debated. The major area of contention concerns the question of their defensibility. Some have recently argued that broch towers were erected to reflect the prestige and status of their builders. Whilst they may have some defensive qualities, these tend not to be significant apart from against local reivers, and the builders would have probably been farmers like nearly everyone else at this time. Nonetheless, there would have been something else, perhaps control over land, people, or other resources, that singled broch tower inhabitants out from others. However, others have argued that this goes too far, and that whilst brochs may be prestige buildings, erected to display status, etc, one cannot dismiss their evident defensive qualities (eg, single narrow entrance passage, bar-holed doors, wall devoid of openings, towering height). The Norse farm buildings The development of the Norse farm settlement is a long and complicated one. It is now represented mostly by low stone footings, with the exception of the 13 th -century farmhouse and associated structures. However, the plans and layouts have been seen as a model to demonstrate the broad pattern of architectural development throughout the Norse Atlantic colonies, inc. at L Anse aux Meadows (Newfoundland, Canada). 6/11

9 The Norse settlers replaced the circular structures of their Pictish predecessors with distinctive rectangular longhouses. The first house was over 21m long by 6m wide, with slightly bowed walls faced in course stone with a central turf core. Accommodation was organised around a long fire that ran down the centre of the building, providing kitchen, living and sleeping space all within the one room. The later houses incorporated living quarters and byre under the one roof, thus introducing an architectural tradition to Scotland s Highlands and Islands that endured, with little modification, into the 20 th century (eg. the Arnol Blackhouses). Old House of Sumburgh This construction, built c.1600, demonstrates a structural form most probably derived from Scottish types. In its final form it comprised a fully enclosed courtyard, with a two-storey residential block along the south side, a kitchen block along the north side, a barn and corn-drying kiln along the east and an outbuilding along the west (the last removed to allow excavation of the broch and associated structures beneath). The building is one of the earliest (if not the earliest) in Shetland of a new breed of lairds house, quite peaceful in their appearance, without even the baronial symbols of gunloops or corner turrets (Gifford). This might appear somewhat at odds both with Earl Patrick s larger-than-life character and his known building works elsewhere (eg Scalloway), but this may be a reflection that his Sumburgh residence was intended for only very occasional use, and that it probably functioned more as the residence of his representative in southern Shetland. Social Overview: Jarlshof is a major cultural heritage attraction perhaps the major cultural heritage attraction in Shetland, drawing visitors from across the world, not least from Scandinavia, because of its strong Viking association. It is also the only staffed Historic Scotland property in the Shetland Islands. That apart, the property seems not to play any other social role. If anything the cultural heritage attraction at nearby Old Scatness, run by the Shetland Amenity Trust, seems to play a greater role amongst the island community, as a focus for living history and educational programmes. Spiritual Overview: Jarlshof is well provided with prehistoric circular houses, whether roundhouses, wheelhouses, passage-houses even a broch. The house lay at the heart of the prehistoric community, and increasing evidence is being adduced for how prehistoric house design, including that of brochs, closely reflected their inhabitants view of the world (cosmology). Most archaeologists agree that religious belief was not divorced from the domestic sphere, although we still have much more to learn here. 7/11

10 The courtyard of the Old House of Sumburgh was pressed into use as a graveyard in the 18 th century, although quite who was interred therein is something of a mystery. Aesthetic Overview The monument comprises mostly low, turf-covered footings of excavated structures. The most obvious upstanding structure, other than the 1930s stonebuilt museum, is the Old House of Sumburgh that stands at the centre of the site. Fortunately, visitors can climb to its wallhead, where they will be treated to a fine panorama. To the south is a view over the usually calm waters of the West Voe of Sumburgh to the open sea beyond, with Fair Isle visible in the distance on a clear day. The high promontory of Sumburgh Head, with its lighthouse, dominates the view to the SE, whilst immediately to the east is the gabled grey-walled Sumburgh House Hotel. Inland lurks Sumburgh Airport s terminal building, and, more noticeably, the ever-present whirr of helicopter blades. The site is neat and tidy, as one expects from a State-managed Ancient Monument. However, by its very nature it is a somewhat confusing site to navigate around, even with the recently-upgraded visitor interpretation. Structures overlie others in a somewhat haphazard way, often separated by more than a millennium in time. The Norse settlement, being slightly separated from the core prehistoric remains, should perhaps be more understandable, but here too the superimposed walls of buildings that were erected, modified and abandoned over centuries give the misleading impression that this was more than just a substantial farm. It has to be owned that the extent and complexity of the whole site is perhaps best appreciated from the air. Notwithstanding all this, the site, by its very complicated nature, and with its numerous twists and turns and unexpected experiences - particularly when moving through the rabbit-warren that is the broch and associated houses - provides the visitor with a fascinating walk through the past. What are the major gaps in understanding of the property? What else remains to be discovered at the site? Although there has been a considerable amount of archaeological excavation, there is clearly still a lot more to be gleaned. The complexity of the site and the problems resulting from excavations extending over decades, most of them without the aid of modern scientific techniques, means that the current sequence of development, and the dating of that sequence, is by no means as secure as it should be. Further excavation would doubtless clarify some areas of uncertainty, particularly in providing key dates for the broad development of the site as well as providing valuable palaeo-environmental information. Where were the Picts in all this? Despite the extensive excavations we appear to have a very limited understanding of the Pictish phase at the site. The remains associated with them are slight and provide little information, 8/11

11 particularly regarding the nature of the relationship between the native inhabitants and the incoming Norse. What are we missing? Part of the site has been eroded by the sea. How much of the site has been reconstructed? The nature and extent of the 19 th and early 20 th -century reconstructions is not fully known, and an attempt should be made to see if extant records exist to shed light. ASSESSMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE Key Points Jarlshof has been described as one of the most remarkable archaeological sites ever excavated in the British Isles. It demonstrates an extended timedepth although not without its gaps (eg, the Pictish era) with origins in the Bronze Age and occupation continuing throughout the Iron Age, into the Norse period, and only ending in the early 18 th century. For such a constrained site, its sequence of development is extraordinarily complex, with a broad range of surviving settlement and building forms. The site displays an unparalleled range of prehistoric settlement and building forms. In particular, there are fine examples of roundhouses of the Atlantic tradition roundhouses, wheelhouses and passage-houses, and the broch itself as well as the two souterrains. The wheelhouses are the best surviving examples of this form anywhere in Scotland. The Norse settlement is of international significance, providing a type site for Norse colonial settlements throughout the North Atlantic. Although the Old House of Sumburgh tends to be overshadowed by the prehistoric phases of the site s occupation, it is important in its own right, as the earliest known example of a late medieval/early modern laird s house in Shetland, a building form that was to be widely adopted by substantial landowners in the 17 th and 18 th centuries. The excavations at Jarlshof have produced a fascinating wealth and range of artefacts and other objects. They shed much light on how the people lived at all phases of the site s development, with the exception of the Pictish era. Most of the artefacts are in National Museums Scotland, but a representative range are displayed in the site museum, itself an innovative interpretation space when created in the 1930s. The site is intimately associated with Sir Walter Scott, one of Scotland s greatest literary giants. The very name of the site Jarlshof is his creation. Associated Properties (some other multi-period, complex settlement sites in Shetland) Clickhimin Broch; East Shore; Old Scatness (other HS sites with souterrains) Ardestie, Carlungie; Castlelaw; Culsh; Grain; Rennibister; Tealing (other brochs in Historic Scotland s care) Carn Liath (Caithness); Clickhimin (Shetland); Dun Beag (Skye); Dun Carloway (Lewis); Dun Dornaigil (Sutherland); Dun Telve & Dun Troddan (Glenelg); Edin s Hall (Berwicks); Gurness (Orkney); Midhowe (Orkney); Mousa (Shetland) 9/11

12 (some other sites with strong Norse links) Brough of Birsay (Orkney); Cubbie Roo s Castle, Wyre (Orkney); Cunningsburgh steatite quarry, Mainland; Law Ting Holm, Tingwall; Orphir Church and Saga Centre (Orkney); Viking Unst, Haroldswick; L Anse aux Meadows (Newfoundland, Canada) (other residences of Earl Patrick Stewart) Earl s Palace, Birsay; Earl s Palace, Kirkwall; Scalloway Castle (other extant 17 th -century lairds houses in Shetland) Lunna House (Mainland); Tangwick Haa (Mainland); The Old Haa (Yell); Vaila Hall (Vaila) Keywords: roundhouse; wheelhouse; passage-house; broch; souterrain; Bronze Age; Iron Age; Pictish, Norse/Viking; farmhouse; laird s house; Earl Patrick Stewart; Bruce (of Symbister/Sumburgh); Sir Walter Scott Selected Bibliography: Anderson, P D., Black Patie: The Life and Times of Patrick Stewart, Earl of Orkney, Lord of Shetland (Edinburgh, 1992) Ashmore, P J., Jarlshof: A Walk through the Past. Historic Scotland Official Guide (Edinburgh, 2002) Ballin Smith, B & Banks, I (eds)., In the Shadow of the Brochs: The Iron Age in Scotland (Tempus, Stroud, 2002) Bruce, J., Notice of an excavation of a broch at Jarlshof, Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland, vol. 41 (Edinburgh, 1907) Curle, A O., various excavation reports between 1933 and 1935 in PSAS vols. 67, 69 & 70 Downes, J & Ritchie, A (eds)., A Sea Change: Orkney and Northern Europe in the later Iron Age AD (Balgavies, Angus, 2003) Fojut, N & Pringle, D., The Ancient Monuments of Shetland (Historic Scotland, Edinburgh, 2004) Gifford, J., The Buildings of Scotland: Highlands and Islands (Penguin, London, 1992) Hamilton, J R C., Excavations at Jarlshof, Shetland (HMSO, Edinburgh, 1957) MacKie, E W., The Roundhouses, Brochs and Wheelhouses of Atlantic Scotland c BC AD 500: Architecture and Material Culture. Part 1 The 10/11

13 Orkney and Shetland Isles. British Archaeological Reports, British Series, 342 (Oxford, 2002) Nicholson, R A & Dockrill, S J (eds)., Old Scatness Broch: Retrospect and Prospect. Bradford Archaeological Sciences Research 5 (Bradford, 1998) Pringle, D., The Houses of the Stewart Earls in Orkney and Shetland New Orkney Antiquarian Journal (Kirkwall, 1999) RCAHMS., Inventory of Ancient Monuments in Orkney and Shetland. Vol. 3 (HMSO, Edinburgh, 1946) Ritchie, A., Viking Scotland (Batsford, London, 1993) 11/11