This thesis seeks to examine how Burberry s use of cross media communication constructs additional identities to the company s corporate identity.

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2 ABSTRACT This thesis seeks to examine how Burberry s use of cross media communication constructs additional identities to the company s corporate identity. As the media landscape has become more and more complex and the traditional media has been augmented with the rapid run of mobile, social, online and interactive media, consumers today are increasingly online and they engage in online activities more than ever before. Consequently, the concept of cross media communication has attracted a considerable amount of interest from the academic and corporate world. Burberry, one of the fashion companies that has been awarded for its digital presence focuses extensively on digital media and uses multiple media to communicate with its customers. This indicates that cross media communication is part of the company s strategy. Because digital media differs significantly in terms of purpose, use and level of interaction, we find it particularly interesting to examine how Burberry s use of cross media communication can be viewed in relation to the construction of the company s corporate identity. The aim of this thesis is to analyse how the use of cross media communication affects Burberry s corporate identity. Therefore, we have developed our own model of analysis that includes corporate identity theory, cross media communication theory and theories related to postmodern consumption. By including these theoretical fields, we analyse Burberry s corporate identity. In addition, we examine how the company s use of cross media communication constructs additional identities to its corporate identity. Finally, we view the findings from our analysis in a postmodern consumption context. The findings from our analysis suggest that Burberry has a number of corporate identities that are communicated consistently through its communication, behaviour and symbolism. Moreover, our analysis reveals that Burberry s use of cross media communication, or lack of it, results in the construction of additional identities that are not part of its corporate identity strategy. Conclusively, we discuss our findings in relation to the central concepts that postmodernism works with. In the light of our analysis and discussion, the thesis ends with an outline of a number of future research areas that would be relevant to study in order to expand the theoretical knowledge of corporate identity and its link to cross media communication. (Number of characters: 2089)

3 TABLE OF CONTENT PART 1 INTRODUCTION Motivation Problem statement Delimitation Reading guide Clarification of concepts Choice of theory Choice of research method Theory of science Social constructionism Researcher and researched Methodology and method Method of case study Single case study Instrumental case study Model of analysis...17 PART 2 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK From modernity to postmodernity The Enlightenment and Modernism Characteristics of modern consumption Postmodernism Characteristics of postmodern consumption Hyperreality and self-symbolism Entertainment based experiences and co-creation Individualism/tribalism Sum up Relevancy in relation to our framework Corporate identity The field of corporate identity Corporate identity three paradigmatic perspectives The functionalistic perspective The Corporate Identity Mix (CI Mix) The Corporate Identity Corporate Communications Process Model (2000) The AC2ID Test Reflections on the functionalistic perspective Relevancy in relation to our framework The interpretative perspective Organisational identity construction on the web Strategic ambiguity Common Starting Points (CSPs) Reflections on the interpretative perspective Relevancy in relation to our framework Media Media development Media convergence Media ecology Social media and social influence Cross media communication Transmedia storytelling or cross media communication? Sum up Relevancy in relation to our framework...61

4 8.2. Cross media communication Cross media communication, not multi media communication Sum up Relevancy in relation to our framework...65 PART 3 EMPIRICAL ANALYSIS Introduction to our case Burberry Introduction to framework Corporate identity Cross media communication Postmodernism Analysis of Burberry s corporate identity Analysis of Burberry s Common Starting Points (CSPs) Burberry s identities expressed through communication, behaviour and symbolism A/W12 Main Campaign Communication Behaviour Symbolism Regent Street flagship Communication Behaviour Symbolism A/W13 Menswear Communication Behaviour Symbolism Art of the Trench Communication, behaviour and symbolism Discussion of corporate identity findings Burberry as a 157-year-old company (communication) Burberry as a British company (communication) Burberry as company with a heritage as an outerwear brand (communication) Burberry as a digital company (behaviour) Symbolism Preliminary conclusion of the corporate identity analysis Analysis of Burberry s use of cross media communication Channel and suitability Website Facebook helps you connect and share with the people in your life Google + share the right things with the right people Twitter find out what s happening, right now, with the people and organisations you care about Pinterest organise and share things you love Instagram fast beautiful photo sharing Storytelling Interactivity: customer/brand interaction and platform interaction Interaction between Burberry and its fans and followers: Interaction between channels User participation Discussion of cross media communication findings Construction of additional identities Findings in relation to postmodern consumption Hyperreality and self-symbolism Entertainment based experiences and co-creation Individualism/tribalism...112

5 Multiple identities PART 4 CONCLUSION Conclusion Reflections Future research List of responsibility Bibliography Number of characters: Appendices

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7 PART 1 INTRODUCTION This introductory part includes the motivation and problem statement. It furthermore explains the various delimitations of this thesis and presents a reading guide with the purpose of giving the reader an overview of the various sections. Finally, this part contains an introduction to our choice of theory and research method, including an argumentation for our scientific stance. 1

8 1. MOTIVATION Over the past decade, the media environment has become more and more complex. As the traditional media has been augmented with the rapid run of mobile, social, online and interactive media, consumers today are increasingly online and they engage in online activities more than ever before. In fact, recent studies have confirmed that the average consumer in a developed country can be reached on an average of 7.2 personal channels, including mobile phone, Skype, and a range of social media networking sites, for example, Facebook, Twitter and Google+ (InfoTrends, 2010). Consequently, the concept of cross media communication has attracted a considerable amount of interest from the academic and corporate world. Cross media communication is defined as a communication strategy, which entails that a media message is being distributed in a coordinated and interactive manner through multiple media and on multiple media platforms (Sandvik, 2010, p. 6). With this media development and the consumers extensive use of media, we find it relevant to investigate how companies respond to this development and examine how they use cross media communication. In 2012, Burberry was ranked number one for the second year in a row in the Digital IQ Index Fashion Report. This study ranked the digital competencies of 64 fashion brands across four different dimensions: site, digital marketing, social media and mobile (L2, 2012). With this rank, we found it particularly interesting to examine how Burberry uses digital media to communicate with its customers. A subsequent preliminary study illustrated that Burberry uses multiple media, which could indicate that cross media communication is part of the company s strategy. Because the digital media differs significantly in terms of purpose, use and level of interaction, we find it interesting to examine how Burberry s use of cross media communication can be viewed in relation to the company s identities. From a theoretical point of view, the use of media in identity construction has primarily been investigated from a consumer perspective, not a company perspective. Research from this field indicates that consumers today actively use media and different media platforms to construct and express their identities (Graaf, 2011, p. 3). However, despite this research, there is little knowledge of how companies can use media to construct their identities. 2

9 Therefore, we find it relevant to investigate the concept of cross media communication in relation to corporate identity construction. 3

10 1.1. Problem statement Taking the above motivation into consideration, the aim of our thesis is to analyse the following question: How does Burberry s use of cross media communication construct additional identities to the company s corporate identity? In order to answer the above question, we find it necessary to include the following subquestions: Theoretical questions What characterises postmodern consumption? How is corporate identity viewed from the functionalistic and interpretative perspective? How is it possible to incorporate multiplicity in corporate identity? How can the use of strategic ambiguity be useful in relation to corporate identity? What characterises the field of cross media communication and how can this discipline be applied to construct identities? Empirical questions What characterises Burberry s corporate identity and how is the identity expressed through communication, behaviour and symbolism? What characterises Burberry s use of cross media communication? Does Burberry s use of cross media communication construct additional identities? How is Burberry s corporate identity and use of cross media communication related to postmodernism and postmodern consumption? The sub-questions provide a frame and guide the structure of this thesis. The structure will be further elaborated on in section

11 1.2. Delimitation In this section, we acknowledge that the focus we have applied to this thesis leads to the delimitation of others. In relation to postmodernism, we only address the issues related to consumption because we analyse Burberry, a commercial company whose success or failure in the end rely on the customers that buy. Since our aim is to analyse how Burberry s use of cross media communication constructs additional identities to the company s corporate identity, this thesis will not include Burberry s employees or customers perceptions of the company. Hence, we will not focus on organisational identity, image or reputation. Moreover, while we are aware that Burberry has a number of branded identities: Prorsum, Brit and London, we do not distinguish between these. Instead, we analyse Burberry s overall self-presentation to its external stakeholders, that is, its corporate identity. Finally, this thesis only includes the functionalistic and interpretative perspective on corporate identity, not the postmodern perspective, as it seeks to disclose power relations between employees. Due to our explicit external focus, we do not find the postmodern perspective relevant in our thesis. While cross media communication consists of both traditional and digital media, we only pay attention to the digital part by analysing Burberry s website and presence on social media platforms. We have chosen this focus because Burberry itself has a distinct focus on digital media. In relation to our analysis of Burberry s corporate identity, we have chosen four different initiatives that each represents different aspects of Burberry. Hence, we do not analyse the entire website. Moreover, we will not comment on the music played in the videos and on the website or analyse the written words. Instead, we focus solely on the visual communication, as the main part of the initiatives from the website is communicated visually. Furthermore, while it is stated in Burberry s brand strategy that the company wishes to obtain a digital luxury positioning, luxury is not included in our analysis, as we find it too abstract to define and analyse when something is luxurious. 5

12 Regarding the analysis of Burberry s use of cross media communication, we focus only on the A/W13 Menswear Show. We do this, because this is the only initiative, which is linked to the different social media platforms. Additionally, since the aim of this analysis is to identify additional identities, we also choose not to analyse the content of Burberry s cross media communication, instead, we find it relevant to analyse how Burberry uses cross media communication, not what it communicates. Finally, in the last part of our analysis, we only comment on the overall findings and their relation to postmodern consumption, not each of the analysed initiatives Reading guide In order to increase the reader-friendliness and lucidity of this thesis, we will briefly outline its overall structure by commenting on its different parts and sections. Our thesis consists of four main parts: introduction, theoretical framework, empirical analysis and conclusion. Besides an introduction and problem statement, the first part includes an introduction to our scientific position, our choice of theory and the research method we have applied. In addition, the delimitations and important concepts of this thesis will be explained. The second part, which forms the basis of our analysis, includes the theoretical framework. This part consists of three main sections in which the first section describes the development from modernity to postmodernity, the general characteristics of postmodernism and the characteristics of postmodern consumers and markets. In the second section, we discuss corporate identity from two different paradigmatic perspectives: the functionalistic and interpretative perspective in order to critically account for their relevancy in our subsequent analysis. Finally, the third section seeks to provide a thorough understanding of cross media communication. More specifically, we first investigate how the media landscape has developed with time and how the concepts of media convergence, media ecology and social media have emerged from this development. Finally, we turn our attention to cross media communication to determine which of the cross media communication frameworks that are relevant in relation to our analysis. 6

13 In the third part of the thesis, we first introduce our own developed model of analysis that incorporates corporate identity theory, cross media communication theory and postmodern consumption theory. In the following section, we examine Burberry s brand strategy in order to identify the company s values. Hereafter, we analyse how these are expressed through Burberry s communication, behaviour and symbolism. Subsequently, we analyse Burberry s use of cross media communication in terms of channel and suitability, storytelling, interactivity and user participation. We do this in order to investigate how Burberry s use of cross media communication is consistent with our way of viewing the concept. After our analysis, we discuss our findings to clarify how Burberry s use of cross media communication has constructed any additional identities. This section ends with a discussion of how Burberry s corporate identity and use of cross media communication are related to the postmodern consumption characteristics, that is, hyperreality, self-symbolism, entertainment based experiences, co-creation and individualism/tribalism. The fourth part of our thesis consists of three sections: our conclusion and our reflections on our social constructionist stance, choice of theory, choice of method, findings and quality of our study. Finally, we outline a number of future research areas that would be particularly interesting to study in order to expand the theoretical knowledge of corporate identity and its link to cross media communication. 7

14 Besides the above outline of the different parts and sections, we have developed a model that illustrates the overall composition of this thesis: Part 1: Introduction Motivation, problem statement, theory of science, methology and method, choice of theory, delimitations and concepts and structure Part 2: Theoretical framework Postmodernism, corporate identity and cross media communication Part 3: Empirical analysis Analysis of Burberry's corporate identity, use of cross media communication and discussion of findings Part 4: Conclusion Conclusion, reflections and future research Figure 1: Overall structure of our thesis (own adaption) After outlining the overall structure of our thesis, we will now go through some of the different concepts we use throughout the thesis. 8

15 1.4. Clarification of concepts In this section, we will briefly account for some of the concepts and terms applied to our thesis. The term Common Starting Points (CSPs) is applied to describe a company s core values, which represent its multiple identities. Hence, when using the terms CSPs or core values in our thesis, we refer to multiple identities. Consumers and customers represent the end users or buyers of a given product. Fans and followers are used to describe the individuals that proactively have chosen to follow Burberry on the company s social media platforms. When the term corporate identity is applied, we also refer to multiple corporate identities because we work with an identity framework that operates with the notion of multiple corporate identities. Corporate identity refers to the identities found through strategy whereas the term additional identities is used to describe the identities identified through our analysis of Burberry s use of cross media communication. In our analysis of Burberry s communication, behaviour and symbolism, communication refers to the following CSPs: age, Britishness and heritage as an outerwear brand whereas behaviour refers to being digital. Consequently, we view being digital as an act or behaviour, not as a way of communicating. Finally, symbolism refers to the visual expressions of the Burberry trench coat, check and Prorsum knight heritage logo. 9

16 2. CHOICE OF THEORY In this section, we account for the main theories we apply in this thesis. Our theoretical framework consists of three main sections: postmodernism, corporate identity and cross media communication. The first section starts out with a theoretical clarification of the development from modernity to postmodernity and moves on to the more general concepts that postmodernism works with. In particular, this section focuses on consumption and how postmodernism has affected consumption practices and the market. In order to paint a nuanced and accurate picture of postmodernism, we have included a number of theorists: Firat & Venkatesh (1995), Cova (1996), Firat & Shultz II (1997), Burr (2003), Prahalad & Ramaswamy (2004) and Christensen, Torp & Firat (2005). As these scholars are highly recognised and respected researchers within this field, we find their work particularly relevant and applicable to our thesis. In the second part of our theoretical framework, we apply the work of Birkigt and Stadler (1986) in van Riel (1995), Balmer and Gray (2000) and Balmer & Greyser (2003) to define and conceptualise some of the different corporate identity frameworks that work from a functionalistic perspective. Subsequently, we turn our focus to Coupland & Brown (2004), Sillince & Brown (2009), Eisenberg (2006) and Leitch & Motion (1999) as these academics work from the interpretative perspective and operate with the notion of multiple identities. By including and discussing both perspectives, it is possible to identify how these contradictory perspectives are applicable and relevant to our own model of analysis and position. The last part of our theoretical framework is based on different scientific articles and books. To describe the development of the new media landscape, we have included scholars such as Jenkins (2006), Deuze (2007), Jenkins & Deuze (2008) and Lister et al. (2009). These scholars have researched extensively within the field and are highly recognised. Finally, in relation to cross media communication, we have applied the work of Sandvik (2010), as we believe that his perspectives on the use of cross media communication are consistent with our understanding and knowledge of the concept. We have now argued for our choice of theory. In the following section, we will account for our theory of science and research method. 10

17 3. CHOICE OF RESEARCH METHOD This section will present the research method applied to this thesis in order to answer the empirical questions stated previously. First, we account for our theory of science. Subsequently, we introduce our research method along with specific details on our case study and model of analysis Theory of science In this section, we account for the social constructionist outlook and approach we apply in this thesis in order to position our study in a legitimate scientific framework. Thus, we state the motivation for our scientific frame and discuss how this stance influences our study and the results we seek and reach. In our thesis, we seek to gain knowledge of and understand how Burberry s use of cross media communication constructs additional identities to the company s corporate identity. Consequently, our research draws upon social constructionism, as this paradigm is consistent with our way of approaching the phenomenon of identity and the assumptions we have regarding reality and knowledge production. Additionally, this stance guides our methodological choice, which will be discussed in more detail in section 3.2. Our choice of scientific framework is also motivated by our desire to critically investigate and reflect on the corporate identity theory that currently dominates the literature, which takes on an functionalistic view and argues that identity is one-dimensional and fixed. Since social constructionism believes that knowledge should not be taken for granted, this approach enables us to question if the corporate identity construct contains more components than the functionalistic corporate identity perspective suggests. Additionally, with this social constructionist stance, we question the notion that identity is a constant entity with no possibilities for alterations and adjustment and, instead, seek to examine the concept as a constructed phenomenon (Burr, 2003, pp. 2-3). 11

18 Social constructionism Taking a social constructionist stance entails a view of reality as socially constructed. Ontologically, this means that multiple versions of the social world are legitimate because language does more than simply represent the world; it constructs it (Burr, 2003, p. 8). By adopting this perception of reality, we reject the idea that an objective reality exists, which is in stark contrast to the positivist premise that functionalism builds on (Chalmers, 1999, p. 3). Although social constructionism is a very complex field that builds on various disciplines, for example, psychology and sociology, scholars generally work from the same main assumptions put forward by Gergen in In his article, The Social Constructionist Movement in Modern Psychology, he presented four assumptions that much of the subsequent work within the field has referred to, either explicitly or implicitly (Burr, 2003; Chalmers, 1999). Because social constructionism insists that we take a critical stance towards our taken-forgranted ways of understanding the world, the first assumption refers to the questioning of taken-for-granted knowledge (Burr, 2003, p. 2). In more specific terms, social constructionism cautions us to be ever suspicious of our assumptions about how the world appears to be. Consequently, as people perceive the world differently, our knowledge is positioned as human-induced in contrast to a true copy of reality (Burr, 2003, p. 4). Thus, no objective truth is accepted (Gergen, 1985, p. 268). In relation to the second assumption, Gergen (1985) argues that the categories and concepts we use to understand the world are historical and cultural specific. In this sense, ways of understanding are viewed as products of culture and history and are dependent upon the social and economic arrangements in the culture of that time (Gergen, 1985, p. 267). With this assumption, we accept that our worldview and knowledge are changing together with history, heritage, context and surroundings (Burr, 2003, p. 3). Gergen s (1985) third assumption rests on the premise that knowledge is sustained by social processes. As knowledge is constructed between people in their daily interactions, versions of knowledge automatically become fabricated. These interactions between people in their everyday lives are then viewed as practices through which our shared versions of knowledge are constructed (Gergen, 1985, p. 268). 12

19 Consequently, social interaction, in particular language, is of great interest to social constructionists (Gergen, 1985; Burr, 2003). Burr (2003) agrees with this assumption in that she argues that: What we regard as truth, which of course varies historically and crossculturally, may be thought of as our current accepted ways of understanding the world. These are a product, not of objective observation of the world, but of the social processes and interactions in which people are constantly engaged with each other (pp. 4-5). The final assumption is that knowledge and social action go together. According to Gergen (1985), there are numerous possible social constructions of the world as understandings take a wide variety of different forms that bring or invite different kinds of actions from individuals (Gergen, 1985, p. 268; Burr, 2003, p. 5). For example, drunks were previously seen as entirely responsible for their behaviour and, as a result, the typical response was imprisonment. However, today we perceive alcoholics to be victims of a kind of drug addiction and therefore we offer medical and psychological treatment instead of imprisonment (Burr, 2003, p. 5). This example illustrates how constructions or descriptions of the world sustain some patterns of social action and eliminate others Researcher and researched Epistemologically, our social constructionist worldview means that we as researchers need to be aware of how we co-construct the world. For example, by interacting with Burberry, we influence and contribute to its meaning construction (Seale, 2012, p. 558). Therefore, this section will review the relationship between us and our field of study, that is, we discuss how we know what we know (Creswell, 2003, p. 25). Among other things, this involves gaining insight into how knowledge is achieved and how readers of our research should regard the outcome of this thesis (Crotty, 2003, p. 2). According to Burr (2003), our ontological stance denies that social knowledge is a direct perception of reality (Burr, 2003, p. 6). As researchers, this positions us as co-constructors of the field that we study. In the process of examining how Burberry s use of cross media communication constructs additional identities to the company s corporate identity, we as researchers, have participated in meaning creation because we analyse from our own historical and cultural specific positions. 13

20 By taking this research approach, context dependency becomes a condition of realisation and objectivity is not an object of focus or concern (Burr, 1995, p. 162). Consequently, we are aware that the findings from our thesis cannot be regarded as truth or facts, nor does our research aim at such results. Rather, we wish to gain knowledge of how multiple identities are constructed through Burberry s use of cross media communication in order to contribute to a more nuanced understanding of the functionalistic corporate identity concept. Hence, we do not seek to provide conclusive answers, but to critically question the taken-for-granted understandings of current corporate identity literature and open up for new and diverse perspectives within the field. Now that we have accounted for our theory of science and stance as researchers, we will proceed to the research method applied to our thesis Methodology and method In this section, we outline the methodological choice that guides our research process and present the specific method we apply in our analysis. While the terms methodology and methods are often use interchangeably, there are differences between the two. Methodology is related to the process of doing research. According to Potter (1996), it includes different perspectives on research that set out a vision for what research is and how it should be conducted (p. 50). In general, methodology is a more abstract concept than methods, which refer to the specific tactics and techniques applied in order to achieve the objective of the methodology (Potter, 1996). Thus, it can be argued that methods are the tools used to produce and analyse data whereas methodology is a research approach that derives from the researcher s philosophical stance. Ultimately, the methodology prescribes the appropriate methods to use and how to use them (Potter, 1996, p. 50). The overall purpose of our thesis is to explore how Burberry s use of cross media communication constructs additional identities to the company s corporate identity. Our interest in the construction of multiple identities has guided our philosophical position and led to the decision that we work as social constructionists. 14

21 Evidently, our methodology and method are influenced by our ontology and epistemology (cf. section ), which also affect the way our study produces knowledge. Hence, the ontology and epistemology form the basis of our chosen methodology and research method. Because our social constructionist position entails questioning the taken-for-granted knowledge we have regarding the functionalistic corporate identity perspective, we apply the method of case study. This will open up for new and diverse perspectives within the field and help us answer how Burberry s use of cross media communication constructs additional identities to the company s corporate identity Method of case study In the following section, we will elaborate further on our case study method. More specifically, we will argue for the choice of our case study and discuss how we work with it in order to gain an understanding of the construction of multiple identities in relation to the use of cross media communication. In our thesis, we wish to advance our understanding of the construction of multiple identities in an organisational context. Being present on multiple media platforms, it arguably makes sense to study Burberry, as we assume that analysing this case can help us achieve the purpose our study: to examine how Burberry s use of cross media communication constructs additional identities to the company s corporate identity Single case study As outlined above, we use Burberry as our case study. Thus, we are working with a single case in order to explore the phenomenon of multiple identities through the use of cross media communication. Consequently, we seek to expand our theoretical knowledge of the phenomenon with a practical dimension and thereby add new perspectives and depth to our understanding of it. 15

22 In general, Ghauri & Grønhaug (2010) argue that a case study approach is often associated with descriptive or explanatory research and is particularly useful under the following conditions: when the phenomenon under investigation is difficult to study outside its natural setting or when the concepts and variables under study are difficult to quantify (Ghauri & Grønhaug, 2010, pp ). It is often argued that a case study is the preferred approach when how and why questions are to be answered, when the researcher has little control over events and when the focus is on a current phenomenon in a real-life context (Ibid.). In consistency with our social constructionist position, our main aim is to gain deep and detailed insight into the case, which a single case study allows (Yin, 2003, p. 13). Consequently, our study can be characterised as narrow explanation, as it investigates a contemporary phenomenon within its real-life context (ibid.). In contrast to other types of research, for example, an experiment, which deliberately divorces a phenomenon from its context, case study research also seeks to cover contextual conditions Instrumental case study A case study can be distinguished according to different typologies. In our thesis, we apply Stake s (2005) typology, as it differentiates between three types of case studies: intrinsic, instrumental and multiple or collective case studies (Baxter & Jack, 2008, pp ). In order to emphasise the purpose and direction of our research, we find his typology useful because it coincides with the particular type of case we study. In consistency with Stake s typology, we identify our case study as an instrumental case study because our aim is to study Burberry in order to gain knowledge of the phenomenon of multiple identities in identity construction. According to Stake (2005), an instrumental case study provides insight into an issue or helps to refine a theory (Stake, 2005, in Baxter & Jack, 2008, p. 549). Additionally, the case is often looked at in depth, (and) its context is scrutinised (ibid.). Thus, we base our study on a single case and analyse it qualitatively with our own developed model of analysis. We will now proceed this section by introducing our model of analysis. 16

23 3.3. Model of analysis The aim of this thesis is to answer how Burberry s use of cross media communication constructs additional identities to the company s corporate identity. Because corporate identity and cross media communication are two disciplines that, until now, have not been linked theoretically, we have developed our own model of analysis that incorporates corporate identity theory and cross media communication theory in order to answer our question. With point of departure in our problem statement, our model consists of two circles: Common Starting Points (CSPs), or core values, and cross media communication (CMC). The different elements within the circles are connected to each other and constitute a company s CSPs and its use of cross media communication, respectively. As visualised by the arrows, both CSPs and use of cross media communication construct a number of identities; the CSPs construct a company s corporate identity whereas the company s use of cross media communication constructs additional identities. As the vertical arrow indicates, these identities influence each another, resulting in the notion of constantly evolving identities. Moreover, the horizontal arrows illustrate that all the identities continuously affect a company s CSPs and use of cross media communication, which creates interrelatedness between the two. Finally, the construction of identities is viewed in a postmodern consumption context. In consistency with our social constructionist position, we have developed a dynamic framework that includes interactivity and allows for the construction of multiple identities. However, when arguing that corporate identity consists of CSPs, communication, behaviour and symbolism, we are aware that this conflicts with the social constructionist belief, which emphasises identity construction through interpretation. 17

24 As the our model illustrates, we have taken an inside-out approach in which we first analyse Burberry s corporate identity and then examine how the company s use of cross media communication constructs additional identities to its corporate identity. Subsequently, we zoom out and place the analysis in a greater perspective in order to determine how this is related to the concepts that postmodernism works with. Figure 2: Model of analysis Now that we have accounted for our own model of analysis, we will proceed to the second part of our thesis: the theoretical framework. 18

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26 PART 2 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK This part consists of three main sections in which the first section describes the development from modernity to postmodernity, the main concepts that postmodernism works with and the characteristics of postmodern consumers and markets. In the second section, we discuss corporate identity from two different paradigmatic perspectives: the functionalistic and interpretative perspective in order to critically account for their relevancy in our subsequent analysis. Finally, the third section seeks to provide a thorough understanding of cross media communication. 19

27 4. FROM MODERNITY TO POSTMODERNITY In this section, we will start out by examining the age of modernity, which will give us an insight into the shifting tendencies from modernity to postmodernity and from structuralism to social constructionism. The work of Firat & Venkatesh (1995), Firat & Shultz II (1997), Pappa (2002), Burr (2003), Venn & Featherstone (2006) and Amine & Smith (2009) will be applied in order to give a theoretical understanding of modernity and its development The Enlightenment and Modernism Modernity builds on the Enlightenment period where the main aim was to search for truth and to understand the true nature of reality through the application of reason and rationality (Burr, 2003, p. 11). This is in sharp contrast to the medieval period in which the church was the sole arbiter of the truth and where it was impossible for individual human beings to discover the truth about life or make decisions about the nature of morality. The rejection of the power of the church was replaced with a strong belief in science and several theorists, for example, the philosopher Emmanuel Kant, emphasised the belief that it was now up to individuals to make judgements based on objective, scientific evidence about what reality was like and what were appropriate moral rules for humans to live by (Burr, 2003, pp ). In this sense, the Enlightenment period was breaking with the tradition and the divine master narrative was replaced with the scientific master narrative (Pappa, 2002, p. 9). The Enlightenment led to modernity, the historical period starting from the early seventeenth century, which is associated with a strong belief in science, structure, rationalism and technology. During modernity, these phenomena impacted the way modernists viewed the world and shaped the values and norms, which people tended to live by (Pappa, 2002, pp. 9-10). One of the main characteristics of modernity is its stance towards realism. During this time period, it was believed that there was one universal truth, which could explain a given phenomenon, and that the truth could be discovered in knowledge about science, technology and systemic and informational analyses (Christensen, Torp, & Firat, 2005, p. 157). 20

28 This search for truth was often based upon the idea that there were rules or structures underlying the surface features of the world and there was a belief in a right way of doing things, which could be discovered (Burr, 2003, p. 10). Consequently, the search for rules and structures was evident within all aspects of society. In sociology, for example, Marx explained social phenomena in terms of the underlying economic structure. Within psychology, Freud and Piaget each postulated the existence of underlying psychic structures to account for psychological phenomena (Burr, 2003, p. 11). Regardless of phenomena, modernism emphasised the hidden structure as the deeper reality underlying the surface features of the world, so that the truth could be revealed by analysing these underlying structures. Consequently, the common feature of these theories referred to their constitution of metanarratives or grand theories, as they offered a way of understanding the entire social world in terms of one all-embracing principle (Burr, 2003, pp ). Additionally, modern individuals were defined as cognitive subjects guided by science, rationalism and technology (Firat & Venkatesh, 1995, pp ). As a result, individual differences that occurred as a result of history and context were disregarded and people were believed to have unified, consistent and centred selves. Hence, the process of culture represented such as language, discourses and personal practices played no significant role in terms of constructing the modern individual (Ibid.) Characteristics of modern consumption Besides its belief in metanarratives and extensive focus on structures, the period of modernity was dominated by a new series of technological inventions that had a significant impact on economy and production. It was now possible to produce products in larger quantities and to a cheaper price (Venn & Featherstone, 2006, p. 460). Consequently, science and these new technological dynamics changed the means of production, which led to the birth of the industrialised world (Firat & Venkatesh, 1995, p. 240). Along with industrialisation, the concept of consumption started to emerge. The production and availability of cheaper products allowed a diverse group of individuals to purchase similar goods that previously were only accessible to the middle or upper classes. Thus, industrialisation made it possible for consumers from all economic backgrounds to partake in buying a greater array of goods. 21

29 In this early stage of development, consumption was mainly characterised by its homogenising view on consumers and its focus on measurable results and profit (Pappa, 2002, p. 2). Consequently, the main aim of modern consumption was to homogenize identity and commodify all goods and services into products for sale and purchase (ibid.). The modernist perception of unified and consistent selves was accordingly applied to a marketing perspective, resulting in the development of concepts like segmentation and targeting. According to Amine & Smith (2009), individuals were identified in homogenous segments based upon descriptors such as demographics, geography and psycographics. Furthermore, modern segmentation allowed marketers to define groups of like-minded consumers and provide a product or service that addressed most of the segment members needs (Amine & Smith, 2009, p. 77). Typically, marketers had to balance their production and marketing costs against goals of efficiency, satisfaction and retention of massive numbers of consumers. In order to achieve this, they applied strategies based on volume of sales, economies of scale and criteria that benefitted companies, but had little to do with complex and changing consumer realities (Amine & Smith, 2009, p. 77). Hence, marketers primary focus was on production and economy, as these factors were presupposed to create profit (Firat & Venkatesh, 1995, p. 250). Additionally, modern marketing assumed that the value for the consumers existed within describing the products benefits (Firat & Shultz II, 1997). Therefore, marketers imposed the values connected to the product and emphasised how and what the consumers would gain from buying it. Hence, modern marketing viewed consumption as a linear process where consumers had a passive role and the marketers were the masters of meaning (Firat & Shultz II, 1997, pp ). In the beginning of the 19 th century, a developing scepticism started to question and criticise the basic claims and believes of modernism. The argument was that it was too narrow, dogmatic and uni-dimensional in its working philosophy (Firat & Venkatesh, 1995, p. 240). Similar critique points emerged decades later in relation to modern consumption, arguing, among other things, that the current view failed to acknowledge the complexity of the individual and its active role in consumption. Consequently, the criticism of modernity led to the emergence of the postmodern era. 22

30 5. POSTMODERNISM This section will focus on postmodernism. The reason for working with postmodernism in our thesis is twofold; first, postmodernism is said to be the cultural and intellectual backcloth, which has shaped social constructionism (Burr, 2003, pp ). Second, to answer our problem statement, it is crucial that we gain a thorough understanding of the general concepts that postmodernism works with, as these affect and influence many aspects of postmodern consumption. In this section, the work of Holbrook & Hirschman (1982), Giddens (1991), Dittmar (1992), Gabriel & Lang (1995), Firat & Venkatesh (1995), Cova (1996), Elliot (1997), Elliot & Wattanasuwan (1998), Firat & Shultz II (1997), Schmitt (1999), Cova & Cova (2001), Burr (2003), Prahalad & Ramaswamy (2004), Christensen, Torp & Firat, (2005), Cova, Kozinets & Shankar (2007) and Amine & Smith (2009) will be applied in order to give a theoretical understanding of postmodernism and postmodern consumption. Postmodernism is an intellectual movement that has its centre of gravity in art, architecture, literature and cultural studies. It represents a questioning and rejection of the fundamental assumptions of modernism, that is, the idea that there can be an ultimate truth, and structuralism, the idea that the world is a result of hidden structures (Burr, 2003, p. 11). Additionally, postmodernism questions the belief that the world can be understood in terms of grand theories or metanarratives and emphasises instead the co-existence of a multiplicity and variety of situation-dependent ways of life (Ibid.). In more specific terms, postmodernists argue that we now live in a postmodern world, a world that can no longer be understood by appeal to one over-arching system of knowledge (Burr, 2003, p. 12). Hence, with its emphasis on pluralism, constructivism, relativism and scepticism, postmodernism represents an antipole to modernism (Firat & Venkatesh, 1995, p. 240). In contrast to modernists, who believed that a given phenomenon could be explained by a single universal truth, postmodernism rejects the idea that there is one such thing. Instead, postmodernism opens up for multiple interpretations and argues that reality and truth solely come through different interpretations of what the world means to each individual (Amine & Smith, 2009, p. 76). 23

31 Juxtaposing postmodernism with modernism, it is evident that there are many contrasting and conflicting views. Central to postmodernism are the ideas of culture, language, aesthetics, narratives, symbolic modes, literature expressions and meanings whereas, in modernism, these are all considered secondary to economy, science, analytical constructs and essences. In terms of processes, modernism is more interested in continuities, progressions, stable order and harmony in contrast to postmodernism, which argues that the micropractices of everyday life, discontinuities, pluralities, chaos, instabilities, constant changes and paradoxes better define the human condition (Firat & Venkatesh, 1995, p. 243). In relation to social and political theory, postmodernism accepts the possibilities that several theories, which may or may not agree with each other, can each have a legitimate position in human discourse. This is in stark contrast to modernism, arguing that the entire world can be explained by one over-arching theory or principle (cf. section 4.1.). In the economic sphere of life, postmodernism considers both symbolic production and consumption to be important areas. With this notion, the modernist rational thinking is replaced with an emphasis on more emotional and experiential schools of thoughts. Finally, postmodernists view all knowledge to be a construction of one sort or another and the product of language and discourse. Instead of science as the primary vehicle of knowledge, postmodernism gives equal status to narratives, discourses, subjective accounts and aesthetic concerns in the grounding of knowledge (Firat & Venkatesh, 1995, pp ). Now that we have outlined the more general concepts of postmodernism, we will now examine how these have impacted postmodern consumption Characteristics of postmodern consumption The shift in fundamentals caused by the postmodern movement has impacted many aspects of human life. Consumption, in particular, is one of the concepts that have evolved significantly since the emergence of the postmodern era. Whereas consumption in the modern era was preoccupied mainly with production and product functionalities and the act of consumption was perceived to be a linear process with passive and homogenous consumers, consumption today plays a greater role in postmodern lives than ever before (Cova, 1996, pp ; Christensen, Torp & Firat, 2005, pp ). 24

32 Hyperreality and self-symbolism In postmodernity, where society has become more global but also more fragmented and dispersed, the consumer is forced to negotiate lifestyle choices among a diversity of options (Giddens, 1991, p. 5). In fact, the consumer s self-concept or identity seems to be the Rome to which all discussions of modern Western consumption lead since the consumer is thirsting for identity and using commodities to quench this thirst (Gabriel & Lang, 1995, p. 79). Hence, the search for self-identity is one of the key elements of postmodern consumption. According to several academics, the postmodern consumer is perceived as a meaningbased individual who does not consume solely from products utilities but also from their symbolic meanings (Giddens, 1991; Holbrook & Hirschman, 1982; Cova, 1996; Firat & Shultz II, 1997). The emphasis on symbolic meanings is closely related to the postmodern concept of hyperreality. According to Firat (1991), hyperreality is used to represent the power of simulation in determining reality. One of the major elements that enables hyperreality is the fact that the relation between signifiers (verbal, visual or material signs that represent things making them intelligible) and the referents is arbitrary. In the postmodern market, this arbitrariness is exploited to its fullest by attaching, creatively and with the sophisticated use of form, technique and language play, any meaning to signifiers (Firat, 1991, p. 70). To underline this argument, Firat (1991) gives an example with toothpaste and states that once it is in the advertising medium, it is separated from its original referent a paste cleansing teeth - and attached with new, symbolic meanings (for example, sexiness, beauty and happiness) to project appealing images. When powerfully communicated, these new meanings or images simulate a new reality and are therefore accepted to be true (Firat, 1991, p. 70). Cova (1996) argues that there is a tendency and willingness to prefer the hype or the simulation to the real itself. He states that: All substance and depth beneath the surface has collapsed; all is represented on the surface (appearance) and the substance (essence) is dead ( ) the image is the substance (p. 17). Hence, through the planned interplay of multiple signs, the image reflects on the surface and becomes the essence the consumer seeks in adopting a product. The image does not represent the product, but the product represents the image (Cova, 1996, p. 17). 25

33 Firat & Shultz II (1997) agree with Cova (1996) by arguing that the relationship between product and image is reversed and suggesting that consumers no longer merely consume products but, instead, they consume the symbolic meanings of those products, the image (Firat & Shultz II, 1997, p. 198). Elliot (1997) argues that the functions of symbolic meanings of products operate in two directions, inward in constructing our self-identity: self-symbolism and outward towards constructing the social world: social-symbolism (Elliot, 1997, p. 287). In the postmodern era, the self is not a given, but is something that the individual creates, primarily through consumption (Gabriel & Lang, 1995, p. 84). Thompson (1995) describes the self as a symbolic project, which the individual actively constructs out of the available symbolic materials, materials that the individual weaves into a coherent account of who he or she is, a narrative of self-identity (p. 210). However, to create a sense of identity is not only to distinguish the individual from the masses but also to lose a sense of difference and become like the others. Ultimately, this depends on how the consumer defines his/hers self-concept. According to Markus & Nurius (1986), the consumer views his/her self according to the imagined possibilities of the self because he or she has the freedom to create a variety of possible selves. In their opinion, the pool of selves derives from the categories emphasised by the individual s context, the models, images and symbols provided by the media and the individual s own experiences (p. 956). Hence, from this perspective, the concept of possible selves as components of the self-concept suggests that the self can be multifaceted. Coupled with this symbol-rich world in which meaning is attached to any situation or object and is determined by the interpretation of these symbols, the consumer learns not only to agree on shared meanings of some symbols, but also to develop individual symbolic interpretations of his/her own. The consumer then uses these symbolic meanings to construct, maintain and express the various actual selves and a variety of possible or ideal selves (Elliott & Wattanasuwan, 1998, p. 18). 26

34 However, the development of individual self-identity is inseparable from the parallel development of a collective social identity. Jenkins (1996) describes this problematic relationship as the internal-external dialectic of identification and argues that self-identity must be validated through social interaction because the self is embedded in social practices (Jenkins, 1996, in Elliott & Wattanasuwan, 1998, p. 18). In extension, Dittmar (1992) argues that efforts to create the consumer s self identity often involve the individual s consumption of products, services and media. She states that: "Material possessions have a profound symbolic significance for their owners, as well as for other people and the symbolic meanings of our belongings are an integral feature of expressing our own identity and perceiving the identity of others" (p. 3). Hence, through consumption, the consumer acquires a variety of identities. A pair of Adidas trainers or a Chanel lipstick allows the consumer to believe that s/he is a different person than s/he would be without these products (Dittmar, 1992, p. 5) Entertainment based experiences and co-creation In contrast to the rational cost/benefit assessments of choices that have dominated the modern way of defining consumption, postmodern consumers want experiences acquired through consumption (Holbrook & Hirschman, 1982; Firat & Shultz II, 1997; Schmitt, 1999). Holbrook & Hirschman (1982) argue that the study of consumer behaviour has evolved from an early emphasis on rational choice to a focus on apparently irrational buying needs. In the modern era, the extensive focus on the tangible benefits of conventional goods and services that perform utilitarian functions has deepened into what is often called the Information Processing Model. This model conjures up an image of the consumer as a problem solver engaged in the goal-directed activities of searching for information, retrieving memory cues, weighing evidence and arriving at carefully considered judgemental values (Holbrook & Hirschman, 1982, p. 132). However, some scholars (Holbrook & Hirschman, 1982; Firat & Shultz II, 1997; Schmitt, 1999) has questioned the domination of the utilitarian consumption perspective on the grounds that it may neglect important postmodern consumption phenomena, for example, experiences, sensory pleasures, daydreams, aesthetic enjoyment and emotional responses (Holbrook & Hirschman, 1982, p. 134). 27

35 This development in consumption is so dominant that some academics have named the postmodern individual Homo Consumericus, a creature defined by consumption and the experiences derived therefrom (Firat & Shultz II, 1997, p. 193). Schmitt (1999) agrees with this notion, as he argues that consumers are emotionally driven rather than just rationally driven as previously believed. Consequently, consumers want consumption experiences that are directed toward the pursuit of fantasies, feelings, and fun (Schmitt, 1999, p. 57) and considered extraordinary and memorable (Schmitt, 1999, p. 58). In this sense, it can be argued that experiences become the added value of products or services. According to Holbrook & Hirschman (1982), the major benefit related to this type of hedonic experience consumption refers to the fact that experiences, entertainment and art products prompt high levels of interest and involvement among consumers (Holbrook & Hirschman, 1982, pp ). However, Prahalad & Ramaswamy (2004) challenge this extensive emphasis on entertainment driven experiences. They state that: High-quality interactions that enable an individual customer to co-create unique experiences with the company are the key (p. 7). From this perspective, the meaning of co-creating experiences refers to fostering individualised interactions and experience outcomes while, at the same time, allowing the individual to choose how to interact with the experience environment that the firm facilitates. Hence, Prahalad & Ramaswamy (2004) believe that, in an oversaturated marketplace packed with goods and services, interactions and co-creation of experiences become the real value to consumers, not the products. With this emphasis on interaction and cocreation, these scholars also question the traditional market view, which argues that the company creates value in the value chain and believes that companies and consumers have separate and distinct predetermined roles (Prahalad & Ramaswamy, 2004, pp. 7-9). Instead, Prahalad & Ramaswamy (2004) believe that value is co-created at multiple points of interaction and that consumers actively create and interact with companies to co-create value. By making the consumer an active participant, Prahalad & Ramaswamy (2004) furthermore argue that it is utopia to think that companies will survive if they only practice one-way communication and fail to engage and interact with consumers (Prahalad & Ramaswamy, 2004, pp ). 28

36 Individualism/tribalism Postmodernism is often characterised by individualism, the logical defence of the modern quest for liberation of social bonds. As a result, the postmodern individual is said to be freed from the constraints of modernity s collective ideals in matters of education, family, sex, etc. Instead, the individual operates with a process of personalisation as a way of managing behaviour (Cova, 1996). In fact, Cova (1996) argues that: We have entered the time of the ordinary individual, an age in which anyone can and must take personal action so as to produce and show one s existence, one s own difference (p. 18). Fragmentation of society, which is fostered by the development of industry and commerce, is among the most obvious consequences of this postmodern individualism. As products, services and technology have freed people from all alienating tasks, the postmodern individual can obtain almost anything one desires from own s home and without the necessity of physical interaction. In this sense, the development of technology has increased the postmodern individual s isolation by permitting one to be in virtual touch with the entire world. Hence, postmodernism can be viewed as a period of severe social dissolution and extreme individualism (Cova, 1996, pp ). However, Cova (1996) argues that postmodernism does not crown the triumph of individualism but rather announces the beginning of its end. Consequently, a reverse movement emerges: a desperate search for the social link (Cova, 1996, p. 19). In contrast to individualism, academics (Cova, 1996; Cova & Cova, 2001; Christensen, Torp, & Firat, 2005; Cova, Kozinets & Shankar, 2007) are now increasingly focusing on the concepts of consumer tribes, social link and linking value, which contribute to a more nuanced conceptualisation of postmodern consumption. According to these theorists, the consumption of cultural resources circulated through markets (for example, brands and experiences) is not the essence of postmodern life; rather, it facilitates meaningful social relationships. Cova & Cova (2001) agree with this argument when stating that the links (social relationships) are more important than the things (brands, products, experiences, ideas) (Cova & Cova, 2001, p. 73). 29

37 The word tribe refers to the re-emergence of apparently outdated values: a local sense of identification, religiosity, syncretism, group narcissism, etc. These postmodern neo-tribes are inherently unstable, small-scale, affectual and not fixed by any of the established parameters of modern society; instead they can be held together through shared emotions, styles of life, moral beliefs and consumption practices of tribe members (Cova & Cova, 2001, p. 67). Consumer tribes do far more than simply adding a social aspect to consumption. Cova, Kozinets & Shankar (2007) argue that the terms consumer and consumption are inadequate when dealing with tribes, as consumers do not simply consume things without changing them and they cannot consume a good without it becoming them and them becoming it. Active and enthusiastic in their consumption, sometimes to the extreme, tribes produce a range of identities, practices, rituals, meanings and even material culture itself (Cova, Kozinets & Shankar, 2007, pp. 3-4). Furthermore, they re-script roles and twist meanings while they fashion their own differentiation strategy. In this sense, they both absorb and resist the pre-packed, off-the-shelf, brand-and-product meanings of marketers (Cova, Kozinets & Shankar, 2007, p. 4). Consequently, consumer tribes rarely consume brands and products without adding to them, grappling with them, blending them with their own lives and altering them (ibid.). Following this theoretical discussion on postmodernism and postmodern consumption, we will briefly sum up this section. Subsequently, we will discuss its relevancy in relation to our own developed framework Sum up As the above section indicates, postmodern consumption is characterised by hyperreality, self-symbolism, entertainment based experiences, co-creation and individualism/tribalism. In the postmodern society, consumption dominates and affects the individuals fragmented definitions of selves and consumers use products and services to represent different identities. The reason why the postmodern consumers wish to take on these commercial identities is related to the concept of hyperreality and self-symbolism. 30

38 In the postmodern market, the relationship between signifiers and referents are made arbitrary and this arbitrariness is exploited by companies to its fullest by attaching new and symbolic meanings to products in order to project desirable images. Consequently, the hyperreal creates new forms and identities and new symbols of consumption. In this context, the image is the substance. The image does not represent the product, but the product represents the image. With this reverse relationship between product and image, it is evident that consumers no longer consume products, but instead they consume the symbolic meanings of those products, that is, the image. Besides constructing identities through consumption, postmodern consumers seek emotional and hedonic experiences in consumption. However, some academics argue that entertainment based experiences are insufficient and that today s consumers demand more. More specifically, they want to interact and co-create experience outcomes. From this perspective, the individualised and personalised interactions and co-creation of unique experiences are what postmodern consumers value the most. Finally, the postmodern consumers are characterised by an extreme focus on individualism and tribalism at the same time. On one hand, these consumers constantly seek and demand products to express individual identities while, at the same time, seeking social links through consumption Relevancy in relation to our framework As stated in our problem statement, the aim of this thesis is to analyse how Burberry s use of cross media communication constructs additional identities to the company s corporate identity. Taking the above characteristics of postmodern consumption into consideration, we find them highly relevant in relation to our thesis because our analytical focal point is Burberry a company that operates in the commercial and postmodern market place and whose success or failure ultimately depends on customers. In particular, we find it interesting to examine how Burberry s corporate identity and use of cross media communication are related to the general characteristics of postmodern consumption and how Burberry and its communication efforts are suitable for communicating with the highly complex and fragmented postmodern consumer. 31

39 With this in mind, we wish to add the following postmodern consumption characteristics in our model of analysis: hyperreality, self-symbolism, entertainment based experiences, co-creation and individualism/tribalism. Figure 3: Postmodern consumption characteristics added to our model of analysis We will now turn our focus towards corporate identity, as this will help us gain a theoretical understanding of the concept. 32

40 6. CORPORATE IDENTITY In this section, we will briefly outline the development of corporate identity, account for the difference between organisational and corporate identity and discuss the concept in relation to image and reputation. Subsequently, we introduce three paradigmatic perspectives on corporate identity: the functionalistic, interpretative and postmodern perspective and the related theoretical corporate identity frameworks. Finally, we reflect on the different perspectives and account for their relevancy in relation to our own developed framework. The work of Birkigt & Stadler (1986), Leitch & Motion (1999), Balmer & Gray (2000), Balmer & Greyser (2003), Coupland & Brown (2004), Eisenberg (2006), Cornelissen (2009) and Sillince & Brown (2009) will be applied to give a thorough understanding of corporate identity The field of corporate identity Originally, corporate identity was synonymous with organisational nomenclature, logos, company house style and visual identification. As many corporate identity practitioners had their roots in graphic design, a great deal of importance was assigned to the graphic design of companies visual representation (van Riel, 1995). In this regard, companies used the combination of visual symbols to help express their corporate identity, as it was believed to be a quick and penetrating way of conceiving a simple idea about the company and its emotional value (van Riel, 1995, p. 28). However, the traditionally narrow meaning of the term corporate identity has been broadened, as academics and practitioners agree that it is almost impossible to communicate only in visual symbols. Although theorists like Olins (1989) argues that visual symbols can help create differentiation from competitors and offer a guarantee of consistent quality standards (Olins, 1989, in van Riel, 1995, p. 30), Tanneberger s (1987) view is largely supported by scholars within the field in that it argues that stakeholders, consciously or unconsciously use all their senses to form a picture of the object in question and make judgements about it. 33

41 As this argument clearly indicates, it is inadequate to focus only on the visual means of communication when constructing a corporate identity, as it is impossible for any company to achieve differentiation and attract confidence solely by means of design (Tanneberger, 1987 in van Riel, 1995, p. 30). Consequently, when discussing the term corporate identity today, the centre of attention has shifted from a preoccupation with visual representation to a more extensive focus on all the aspects of the company. As Cornelissen (2009) states: Corporate identity is not merely a projected image in the form of visual design and communication, but is also fundamentally concerned with what the organisation is (p. 68). In order to determine what the organisation is, different academics (Cornelissen, 2009; Hatch & Schultz, 1997) distinguish between the concepts of organisational and corporate identity. Whereas organisational identity has an internal focus and can be defined as what members perceive, feel, and think about the organisation (Hatch & Schultz, 1997, p. 357), corporate identity has an external focus and is concerned with the self-presentation of the company to its surroundings (Hatch & Schultz, 1997). Additionally, Cornelissen (2009) also distinguishes between the two by arguing that organisational identity refers to the core values that people share within the organisation, whereas corporate identity focuses on the outward presentation and communication of those values through communication, behaviour and symbolism (Cornelissen, 2009, pp ). Since corporate identity focuses on the company s outward presentation, it is closely related to the concepts of corporate image and reputation. According to van Riel (1995), it has become generally accepted that identity is associated with the way that a company presents itself to its target groups (p. 28) while image is the picture of an organisation as perceived by a target group (ibid.). Additionally, Balmer (2001) states: One objective of effective identity management is the acquisition of a favourable reputation among key stakeholder groups (p. 256). As the quote indicates, the aim is to create a favourable reputation and not just a favourable image. 34

42 The reason for the emphasis on reputation can be explained when defining the difference between corporate image and reputation: Corporate image is the immediate mental picture that audiences have of an organisation ( ) corporate reputations, on the other hand, typically evolve over time as a result of consistent performance, reinforced by effective communication, whereas corporate images can be fashioned more quickly through wellconceived communication programs (Balmer & Gray, 1998, p. 697). Hence, corporate images may vary in time due to differing perceptions, but reputations are more likely to be relatively inert or constant, as individuals and stakeholders retain their assessment of an organisation built over time (Cornelissen, 2009, p. 76). In our thesis, the aim is to examine how Burberry s use of cross media communication constructs additional identities to the company s corporate identity. Consequently, the term corporate identity as outlined by Cornelissen (2009) is applied since we focus on how Burberry attempts to present itself and communicate its values to external stakeholders. After this review of the development of corporate identity, the difference between organisational and corporate identity and its relatedness to image and reputation, we will now examine the concept from three different paradigmatic perspectives Corporate identity three paradigmatic perspectives According to different academics (Balmer, 2001; Bøilerehauge, 2006), there are three different paradigmatic views on corporate identity that dictate three different ways of defining and exploring the concept. These three perspectives are: functionalistic, interpretative and postmodern. The functionalist perspective regards identity as a social fact, which can be observed, moulded and managed. Consequently, the key research issues centre on uncovering, describing and measuring a business identity. The second paradigm, the interpretative perspective, focuses on how employees construct meanings regarding who they are within the organisation. Here, identity is viewed as a socially constructed phenomenon with employees seeking to give meaning to their work and the focus of the research is to uncover the meanings employees attach to their workplace. Finally, the postmodern paradigm seeks to disclose power relations. 35

43 Within this paradigm, identity is regarded as a collection of transcendatory perspectives about how employees view themselves (Balmer, 2001, p. 12). Working from a social constructionist position, we view identity as a socially constructed phenomenon. However, while the above-outlined interpretative perspective emphasises internal processes, we focus on identity viewed from an external perspective. More specifically, we analyse how Burberry s use of cross media communication constructs additional identities to the company s corporate identity by focusing on external communication with stakeholders outside the organisation. Within the above-mentioned paradigmatic perspectives, there are many different approaches and definitions of corporate identity, which add to the complexity of the concept. In order to discuss how different academics view corporate identity, we will now turn our focus to the functionalistic and interpretative corporate identity frameworks, which will represent different perspectives on the subject The functionalistic perspective In this section, we will focus on the work of Birkigt & Stadler (1986), Balmer & Gray (2000) and Balmer & Greyser (2003) in order to define and conceptualise some of the different corporate identity frameworks that belong to the functionalistic perspective The Corporate Identity Mix (CI Mix) In Birkigt & Stadler s (1986) corporate identity framework, they argue that a company s corporate identity is created through its behaviour, communication and symbolism; the concrete forms into which the company s personality crystallises (p. 33 in van Riel, 1995). In general, academics working from the functionalistic position often argue that companies, like individuals, have personalities. Characteristics derived from the dictionary definitions refer to the abstractable and relatively constant features by means of which one individual can be distinguished from others (van Riel, 1996, p. 35). 36

44 In congruence, Lux (1986) believes that the distinguishing features of personality form the core of the underlying characteristics through which a company gains its nonexchangeable identity (p. 30 in van Riel, 1995). As this quote indicates, it is argued that a corporate identity is coherent, consistent and fixed. Several scholars (Birkigt & Stadler, 1986; Olins, 1989; van Riel, 1995; Fombrun, 1996) support this belief. Van Riel (1995), for example, emphasises that: A purposefully deployed corporate identity, based on consistent signals, is essential, since a company that conveys conflicting messages risks losing credibility (p. 29). In agreement, Bernstein (1986) argues that identity is the characteristic or condition of complete agreement, absolute or essential similarity, unity of being (p. 31 in van Riel, 1995). Figure 4: Corporate Identity (CI) Mix (adapted from Birkigt & Stadler, 1986, p. 28) As illustrated in figure 4, the above-mentioned personality and consistency are also emphasised in this model, as it argues that a company s consistent behaviour, communication and symbolism constitute its personality, which, altogether, create its corporate identity. According to Birkigt & Stadler (1986), the most important and effective meaning through which corporate identity is created is the behaviour of the company. 37

45 Ultimately, target groups will judge the company by its actions. However, in Birkigt & Stadler s (1986) opinion, it is possible to emphasise particular aspects of company behaviour by means of communication and/or symbols. By communication, Birkigt & Stadler (1986) refer to the sending of verbal and visual messages. In contrast to behaviour, communication is a more flexible corporate identity tool that quickly can be putted into tactical use. The flexibility of communication lies in the fact that more abstract signals can be transmitted directly to target groups. Finally, Birkigt & Stadler (1986) argue that symbolism, which gives an implicit indication of what the organisation stands for, should harmonise with the other expressions of a company s corporate identity (Birkigt & Stadler, 1986, in van Riel, 1995, p. 33). In this context, symbolism refers to the visual style, that is, the name, logo, colour and rites of passages that a company uses in order to distinguish itself and its brand. In a sense, a strong visual style serves the same purpose as religious icons, heraldry, national flags and other symbols; they encapsulate collective feelings of belonging and make them visible. Additionally, a strong visual style can offer a guarantee of consistent quality standard and contribute to the loyalty of customers and other target groups (Birkigt & Stadler, 1986, in van Riel, 1995, p. 36). In Birkigt & Stadler s (1986) identity framework, they also take the concept of image into account. However, in contrast to van Riel s (1995) identity/image definitions, Birkigt & Stadler (1986) perceive the image of a company to be a direct projection of its corporate identity The Corporate Identity Corporate Communications Process Model (2000) In Balmer & Gray s (2000) model, they have developed a corporate identity framework, which aims to enhance the understanding of the interplay between identity, communication, image and reputation. The model suggests that corporate identity and three types of corporate communication lead to a company s image and reputation. Furthermore, the model traces the interrelationship among the components and indicates that feedback and correction are essential to the effectiveness of the process (Balmer & Gray, 2000, pp ). 38

46 Figure 5: The Corporate Identity Corporate Communications Process Model (Balmer & Gray, 2000, p. 260) According to Balmer & Gray (1998), corporate identity refers to the distinct characteristics of the organisation or, in other words, what the organisation is. The corporate identity involves the dynamic interplay between the company s business strategy, philosophy of executives, corporate culture and organisational design (Balmer & Gray, 1998, p. 695). Hence, Balmer & Gray (1998) argue that the company s identity is primarily a management decision. However, they also argue that corporate culture affects the company s identity. As illustrated in the model, the corporate identity is communicated through different types of corporate communication processes, which function as the critical link between identity, image and reputation. It is through these processes that a company conveys its identity to its multiple audiences and stakeholders. In addition, Balmer & Gray (1998) argue that the methods and channels of corporate communications should be defined in the broadest possible sense as stakeholders are influenced in many different ways. Hence, everything an organisation says, makes or does will, in some way, communicate and therefore the focus is not solely on communication, but also on the company s actual behaviour and actions (Balmer & Gray, 1998, p. 699). 39

47 The last component in Balmer and Gray s (2000) model is image and reputation. In their opinion, the company s image and reputation are important, as different stakeholders perception of the company will influence their willingness to either provide or withhold support (Balmer & Gray, 1998, p. 697). However, at the same time, they argue that the external environment also influences the interplay between the corporate identity and image and reputation. As a result, each stakeholder group is likely to have a different perception of the organisation, as the individual stakeholder is concerned with different facets of a company s business (Balmer & Gray, 1998, pp ) The AC2ID Test In contrast to the above CI Mix, which emphasises a one-dimensional and consistent corporate identity, Balmer & Greyser s (2003) AC2ID Test offers an alternative way of viewing corporate identity. As the corporate identity landscape has become more active and crowded due to mergers, acquisitions, alliances and new communication forms, these scholars find it necessary to critique the prevailing corporate thinking, which considers identity to be a monolithic phenomenon (Balmer & Greyser s, 2003, pp ). Instead, Balmer & Greyser (2003) introduce a new framework called the AC2ID Test. This is an acronym that encapsulates the mosaic of five identity types the actual identity, communicated identity, conceived identity, ideal identity and desired identity which are present in any corporation or organisation (Balmer & Greyser, 2003, p. 17). Figure 6: The five identities of the AC2ID Test (Balmer & Greyser, 2003, p. 17) 40

48 The actual identity is shaped by corporate ownership, leadership style, organisational structure, business performance, etc. as well as the values held by management and employees and the degree to which they identify with the actual identity. The communicated identity is composed of all controlled and uncontrolled communication by the organisation and external forces. The conceived identity is equivalent to the concept of corporate image; hence, the conceived identity includes the external stakeholders perception of the company although Balmer & Greyser (2003) suggest that a choice has to be made as to which groups and which concepts form the conceived identity. Additionally, this identity can affect the corporate reputation and the overall corporate brand. The ideal identity is a purely conceptual construct that refers to the articulation by strategic planners and others of the optimum positioning of the organisation, its market or markets in a given time frame. Finally, the desired identity refers to the corporate leaders vision for the organisation (Balmer & Greyser, 2003, pp ). In contrast to Birkigt & Stadler s (1986) CI Mix and Balmer & Gray s (2000) Corporate Identity Corporate Communications Processes Model, the AC2ID Test is grounded in the premise that companies indeed have multiple identities, which emanate from different sources within and outside the company. Balmer & Greyser (2003) state: Some identities are formed by communications, others grow from a corporation s values and cultures. In considering identities, company top management may want to be assured that the perspectives and disciplines employed are wide-ranging (p. 18). As this quote indicates, Balmer & Greyser (2003) believe that a company s various identities can be controlled. In fact, they argue that lack of alignment between any two identities is potentially damaging for any corporate entity and therefore organisations should orchestrate the five elements so that they are broadly congruent with each other as well as with the environment (Balmer & Greyser, 2003, p. 18). After this review of the functionalistic perspective, we will briefly reflect on the theories related to this perspective and discuss their relevancy in relation to our own developed framework. 41

49 Reflections on the functionalistic perspective The above models work from a functionalistic perspective, as they consider corporate identity to be observable, mouldable and manageable. In addition, the models either operate with the notion of a coherent or fixed corporate identity that exists within a company. In Birkigt & Stadler s (1986) CI Mix, it is believed that managers are able to control the behaviour, communication and symbolism of the company, which constitute its personality and identity. In fact, Birkigt & Stadler (1986) believe that managers can control the image, the direct projection of its identity. Furthermore, this model emphasises the importance of a coherent corporate identity. For example, Birkigt & Stadler (1986) argue that a company s communication should be reflected in its behaviour and that its symbolism should harmonise with the other expressions of its corporate identity (pp ). Similarly, Balmer & Gray (2000) believe that a company s corporate identity involves the strategy, culture and philosophy of its managers and leaders. Hence, this framework also assumes that identity can be controlled by management. The functionalistic nature of this model is further emphasised by its focus on sequences and how it views image and reputation creation as a linear process. Finally, while the AC2ID Test operates with a notion of multiple identities, it is in fact functionalistic as well, as it assumes that managers can control and identify the fixed, actual, communicated, conceived, ideal and desired identities that a company has. By control, Balmer & Greyser (2003) suggest that the leadership group needs to manage identities so that they are broadly consonant with each other since the lack of alignment between any two of the identities can potentially weaken a company. Hence, this framework also emphasises the importance of coherence in relation to corporate identity. As we work from a social constructionist position, our choice of scientific framework conflicts with these functionalistic models. First, we question Birkigt & Stadler s (1986) and Balmer & Gray s (2000) views that a company has one definitive and stable corporate identity. This is primarily because we, as social constructionists, reject the idea of an objective truth. Hence, we do believe that an identity can be localised inside a company; rather, we view the identity phenomenon as a social construction. 42

50 Second, we reject Birkigt and Stadler s (1986) notion of company personality. In addition to Gergen s (1985) four main assumptions outlined in section , another crucial feature of social constructionism is anti-essentialism. Burr (2003) states: Since the social world, including ourselves as people, is the product of social processes, it follows that there cannot be any given, determined nature to the world or people. There are no essences inside things or people that make them what they are (p. 5). Hence, due to our social constructionist stance, we reject the idea that a company can have a predetermined personality. Instead, we believe that personality is constructed in social processes. Third, the functionalistic models suggest that management can decide on, control and communicate the identity of a company. This also conflicts with our social constructionist position, as we believe that meanings are socially constructed through communication rather than simply transferred from sender to receiver. This means that individuals can assign multiple meanings to a company s corporate identity Relevancy in relation to our framework While the functionalistic models collide with our scientific position, we still find it relevant to use some of the elements from one of the models in our subsequent identity analysis. We find Birkigt & Stadler s (1986) perspective on corporate identity, as consisting of communication, behaviour and symbolism, useful. In their model, these elements are viewed as coherent elements, constituting a company s personality. However, from our perspective, we do not emphasise coherence between the elements, but simply see them as independent parts that can contribute to the construction of a corporate identity. Consequently, we wish to place communication, behaviour and symbolism in our own developed identity framework, which is more in line with our social constructionist stance. As mentioned previously, we focus on the functionalistic and interpretative perspective in this thesis. Now that we have outlined the functionalistic perspective, we will proceed to the interpretative perspective. 43

51 The interpretative perspective The above-mentioned theories all work from a functionalistic perspective, arguing that corporate identity needs to be coherent and can be controlled by management. In contrast, the interpretative perspective views identity as a socially constructed phenomenon and focuses on how employees construct meanings regarding who they are within the organisation. While we do acknowledge that this perspective does not coincide 100% with our external focus on corporate identity, we still find these theories relevant, as they work with the notion of multiple identities and emphasise interpretation. Similar to the functionalistic corporate identity theories, the theoretical field within the interpretative perspective is diverse and interdisciplinary. However, while the scholars working from this perspective differ in method and approach, they all focus on employees and the internal interpretative aspects of identity construction Organisational identity construction on the web In their work, Coupland & Brown (2004) focus on how the identities of Shell evolve through identity-centred debates between internal and external stakeholders. More specifically, they analyse the exchanges posted on Shell s Website Interactive Forum in order to investigate how organisational identities are constructed through processes of description, questioning, contestation and defence (Coupland & Brown, 2004, p. 1325). These scholars perceive corporate identities as discursive constructions and argue that individual and groups, often in interaction, attribute different multiple identities to organisations. Consequently, this framework acknowledges that identities are not fixed but dynamic and that organisational participants may have multiple, competing views regarding an organisation s construed identity and image. As Coupland & Brown state: For any organisation, there is no essential identity, image, or reputation that can be surfaced, but many accounts of them, which variously compete, resist, undermine, and borrow from each other (p. 1328). 44

52 Additionally, in Sillince & Brown s (2009) framework, they analyse 43 geographically based English and Welsh constabularies in order to examine how multiple identities are constructed through rhetoric on the different official police websites. More specifically, they analyse a number of rhetorical strategies used to make different identity claims (Sillince & Brown s, 2009, p. 1829). In Sillince & Brown s (2009) view, identities are phenomenological, socially constructed rhetorical constructs, concerned with what the organisation stands for and what senior managers want them to become (p. 1832). According to these scholars, identity multiplicity emerges when the constabularies make one or more claims about their organisation, for example, when they state that they, as an organisation, are both concerned with family and business (Sillince & Brown, 2009). Consequently, Sillince & Brown (2009) argue that multiple identities are aspects of constabularies self-presentation strategies by which they attempt to control stakeholder perceptions within their environment. More specifically, they express different claims used to locate themselves ambiguously with respect to seemingly competing aims (Sillince & Brown, 2009, p. 1847) Strategic ambiguity Eisenberg s (2006) work on strategic ambiguity is not directly linked to corporate identity, as he focuses on ambiguity and polyphony in organisations internal communication. However, because strategic ambiguity is centred on how employees give meaning to internal corporate messages this concept is consistent with the interpretative perspective, which focuses on how employees give meaning to their company s identity. Hence, it can be argued that Eisenberg s (2006) framework works within this perspective. Therefore, we believe that the concept of strategic ambiguity can be applied to the corporate identity field. According to Eisenberg (2006), strategic ambiguity is a direct outgrowth of the relativist view of meaning. This perspective is critical of logical empiricism and it rejects the notion that an objective world exists, which waits to be discovered. As no objective reality can be found, the existence of literal language becomes questionable and all meaning is seen as fundamentally contextual and constructed (Eisenberg, 2006, pp. 5-6). Hence, from this perspective, language, perception and knowledge are completely interdependent. 45

53 Ortony (1979) agrees with this argument, stating that: Knowledge of reality, whether it is occasioned by perception, language, memory, or anything else, is a result of going beyond the information given. It arises through the interaction of that information with the context in which it is presented, and with the knower s pre-existing knowledge (p. 1 in Eisenberg, 2006). Additionally, this relativist view of meaning is reflected in the interactional view of communication in which all action is perceived to be potentially communicative and context is the key factor in determining meaning (Eisenberg, 2006, p. 6). According to Eisenberg (2006), one of the main advantages of strategic ambiguity is its ability to foster the existence of multiple viewpoints in the organisation. This ambiguity is often found in missions, goals and plans. Thus, strategic ambiguity is essential to organising, as it allows for multiple interpretations to exist among people who contend that they are attending to the same message, that is, they perceive the message to be clear (Eisenberg, 2006, pp ). Eisenberg (2006) argues that it is a necessity to engage in strategic ambiguity so that different constituent groups may apply different interpretations to the symbol. In support of Eisenberg s (2006) view, Sillince & Brown (2009) found, in their examination of multiple police identities on websites, that ambiguous communication helped the organisation to acquire and maintain legitimacy (Sillince & Brown, 2009, p. 1833). Hence, organisations may use strategic ambiguity in order to enable authorship of diverse interpretations. At the interpersonal level, strategic ambiguity can facilitate relational development. Eisenberg (2006) believes that this occurs when organisational members are purposefully ambiguous and those attending to the message fill in what they believe to be an appropriate context and meaning. Therefore, the more ambiguous the message, the greater room for projection. When an individual projects, he or she fills in the meaning of a message in a way, which is consistent with his or hers own beliefs (Eisenberg, 2006, p. 12). Hence, projection results in greater perceived similarity between source and receiver, which can lead to increased attraction and the facilitation of relational development. Giraud (2003) supports the use of ambiguity. As his corporate identity studies have shown the positive effects of gaps between a company s identity and its image, he argues that such gaps offer consumers more room for freedom and give them greater space to interact with the company (Giraud, 2003, in Cova, Kozinets & Shankar, 2007, pp ). 46

54 Furthermore, Giraud (2003) states that consumers seem to prefer an ambiguous corporate identity to one that is clearly defined, as this creates a room for a number of initiatives, which involve consumption re-enchantment and hyperreality (Cova, Kozinets & Shankar, 2007, p. 21) Common Starting Points (CSPs) The last theory within the interpretative perspective outlines how multiplicity can be useful in relation to corporate identity. Here, Leitch & Motion (1999) analyse how different employees make sense of their company s values, adding to the multiplicity of the company s identity. Throughout the analysis, Leitch & Motion (1999) draw parallels between modernity and postmodernity, arguing that the corporate identity field, which emerged from the modern era, needs to be revised in order to match today s postmodern society 1 (Leitch & Motion, 1999, pp ). According to Leitch & Motion (1999), the central reason for the emphasis on coherence within corporate identity theory has been the message-centred character of the discipline. In contrast, the meaning-based postmodern theory has placed an emphasis on multiplicity. In their opinion, a major influence on the postmodern concept of multiplicity is the work of semioticians, such as de Sassure (1960) and Barthes (1972), who believe that signs, including words and symbols, do not have one fixed meaning that can be determined by the person deploying the sign. Instead, these semioticians draw attention to the connotative level of all signs, the level at which interpretation occurs (Leitch & Motion, 1999, p. 194). Furthermore, Leitch & Motion (1999) draw attention to the empirical work by Moffitt (1994), on the images held of organisations by various stakeholders, which supports the view that individuals not only hold multiple and often conflicting images of an organisation, but may also be comfortable with these contradictions (Moffitt, 1994, in Leitch & Motion, 1999, p. 194). The idea that consistency and coherence in message perception is possible is rooted in a rather outdated view that assumes that it is possible for an organisation to construct a single meaning and transmit this meaning to its publics. 1 When referring to postmodern theories/perspectives in this section, we refer to postmodernity and not one of the three paradigmatic perspectives related to corporate identity (outlined on p. 34). 47

55 As the findings from Moffitt s (1984) research indicate, this idea is mistaken because people form their own individual interpretations (Leitch & Motion, 1999, p. 194). The typical response of modern corporate identity theory to overcome competing and contradictory views about an organisation is often to overwhelm these with a single coherent identity (cf. section 6.1.). However, instead of perceiving multiplicity as an enemy, Leitch & Motion (1999) suggest that multiplicity should be included in the existing body of theory, as it characterises how postmodern individuals today create meaning and make sense of companies and their identities (ibid.). According to Leitch & Motion (1999), van Riel s theory of Common Starting Points (CSPs) represents one of the few attempts to incorporate multiplicity into corporate identity. In this approach, multiplicity is a foundational principle used to enhance organisational effectiveness. CSPs can be considered as: The central values, which function as the basis for undertaking any kinds of communication envisaged by an organisation (p.19). Additionally, it is argued that they can derive directly from a chosen strategy (ibid.). While van Riel (1995) stresses that a degree of coordination is needed in order to ensure that variations are mutually agreed on within the organisation, he notes that: Striving for coordination by no means implies that the totality of communications employed by a company has to be uniform (p. 47). To illustrate how CSPs and multiplicity should be integrated into corporate identity strategy, Leitch & Motion (1999) use a musical metaphor where they argue that consistency is generally thought of in relation to harmony. A consistent corporate identity, then, is one in which the various elements of corporate identity are in tune. However, in their opinion, CSPs do not imply a single tune but rather signify a common set of notes from which a variety of organisational tunes may be composed (p. 195). Consistency may be found in the roots of each element of the corporate identity rather than within those elements themselves. From this perspective, an organisation can then represent multiple identities to its various publics as long as these identities are consistent, not with each other, but with the organisation s CSPs. The corporate identity task then is to manage the multiplicity rather than to suppress it. 48

56 In agreement, Bernstein (1989) argues that: Image x will not be totally relevant for all publics. And an image entirely suitable for one will probably be wrong for another. But there should be common elements (p. 195 in Leitch & Motion, 1999). After this review of the interpretative perspective, we will briefly reflect on the theories related to this perspective and discuss their relevancy in relation to our own developed framework Reflections on the interpretative perspective While the above theories all work from an internal interpretative perspective, they differ considerably in terms of their understanding of and approach to identity construction. However, all the theories operate with the notion of multiple identities. In Coupland & Brown s (2004) framework, they believe in the idea that identities are discursive constructions and argue that individuals in interaction can attribute different multiple identities to an organisation. Sillince & Brown (2009) also focus on the linguistic aspects of identity construction when arguing that organisational identities are constructed through rhetoric. However, while Coupland & Brown (2004) believe that there are no essential identities that can be surfaced or observed, Sillince & Brown (2009) argue that identities are concerned with what senior managers want them to become. As stated previously, Eisenberg s (2006) work on strategic ambiguity and polyphony in organisations internal communication is not directly linked to corporate identity. However, we still find his work relevant because it focuses on how employees give meaning to messages. From his perspective, there are two major advantages related to the use of strategic ambiguity. First, it can foster the existence of multiple viewpoints in the organisation and enable authorship of diverse interpretations. Second, strategic ambiguity can facilitate relational development, as ambiguous messages leave greater room for projection. This can result in perceived similarity between source and receiver. Finally, Leitch & Motion (1999) have created an identity framework in which they use van Riel s theory of Common Starting Points (CSPs) to incorporate multiplicity into the corporate identity concept. 49

57 In this context, CSPs can refer to the central values of a company with each value representing an identity. Hence, when multiple central values exist within a company, multiple identities are present as well. In contrast to the functionalistic models, this identity framework does not emphasise coherence between a company s corporate identities, but coherence with the organisation s core values. Working from a social constructionist position, our choice of scientific framework is in consonant with the interpretative perspective. As social constructionists, we reject the idea of an objective truth. Instead, we believe that multiple truths exist depending on the individual s own interpretations. This belief is also consistent with the way we approach corporate identity, as we believe that an individual can assign multiple identities to a company depending on his/her own interpretations, understandings, knowledge and context. The above theories working within the interpretative perspective give room for this. However, in our thesis, we view identity from an external perspective and analyse how Burberry uses cross media communication to construct its corporate identity. We do this by focusing on external communication with stakeholders outside the organisation Relevancy in relation to our framework Now we will account for the different theories related to the interpretative perspective and argue for their relevancy in relation to our analysis of Burberry s corporate identity. While Sillince & Brown s (2009) framework is interpretative in nature, it shares some of the beliefs rooted in the functionalistic perspective. For example, it is stated that organisational identities are what senior managers want them to become (p. 1832) and that the constabularies, through rhetoric, construct multiple self-presentations in an attempt to control stakeholder perceptions (Sillince & Brown, 2009, p. 1847). Despite this observation, we still find this framework relevant because we, in our thesis, also acknowledge that a company has a saying in the construction of its corporate identity. However, in contrast to Sillince & Brown (2009) and in consistency with our social constructionist stance, we do not believe that stakeholder perceptions can be controlled. We find Eisenberg s (2006) work on strategic ambiguity particularly useful in our thesis, as we believe that ambiguity can be used in identity construction as well. The use of strategic ambiguity allows for multiple interpretations of a company s identity. 50

58 Being ambiguous means that a consumer can interpret a company s behaviour, communication and symbolism according to his/hers own understanding or context, which enable some kind of authorship of the company s identity. Hence, the consumer can attribute the company an identity consistent with his/hers own beliefs. Additionally, the use of ambiguity creates room for projection in identity construction, allowing a consumer to fill in the blanks. This freedom of interpretation creates gaps that offer consumers greater space to interact with the company and its brand, fostering company/consumer relationships. Taking the notion of multiple interpretations and multiple identities into consideration, we find Leitch & Motion s (1999) identity framework relevant, as it acknowledges multiple identities and argues that coherence between a company s identities is not essential. Finally, we find the theory of CSPs useful, as it can help us analyse the core values that represent Burberry s multiple identities. With the above reflections on the functionalistic and interpretative perspective in mind, we wish to include the following identity elements to our model: CSPs, communication, behaviour and symbolism: Figure 7: Identity elements added to our model of analysis Now that we have covered the second theoretical part of our thesis, corporate identity, we will turn our focus to cross media communication, the last theoretical part of our own developed model of analysis. 51

59 7. MEDIA In our thesis, the aim is to analyse how Burberry s use of cross media communication constructs additional identities to the company s corporate identity. To gain a thorough understanding of cross media communication, we first wish to investigate how the media landscape has developed with time. Therefore, we focus on the terms media convergence, media ecology and social media, as they derive from this development. The work of Jenkins (2006), Deuze (2007), Jenkins & Deuze (2008), Lister et al. (2009), Mulhern (2009), Davidson (2010) and Macnamara (2010) will be applied Media development According to Lister et al. (2009), we are now living in a world where the old scripts, by which media industries operated or individuals consumed media content, are more or less being rewritten. The emergence of this new media landscape is primarily caused by two interrelated progresses. First, it is heavily influenced by the rapid technological developments. Second, it is perceived to be part of wider social and cultural changes (Lister et al. 2009, pp ). During the 1980 s, media relied primarily upon print and analogue broadcast, such as TV and radio. However, the rise of modern computer technology, for example, personal computers and video games, followed by the development of the Internet, resulted in a major transformation and the use of these technologies became more and more implemented into the mediated world (Lister et al., 2009, p. 2). Several scholars (Mulhern, 2009; Macnamara, 2010, Davidson, 2010) describe this technological transformation as crucial in changing the concepts of communication and media production. Macnamara (2010) argues that the Internet and Web 2.0 contribute to the fourth revolution in the history of media, citing the creation of the Greek alphabet, which led to writing, followed by the invention by the printing press, the development of broadcast media (radio and TV) and the arrival of the computer and the Internet (Macnamara, 2010, p. 3). However, the transformation of the traditional media landscape was not only affected by technology; the social and cultural changes that emerged from the postmodern period played a significant role as well. 52

60 As previously stated, it was during this time period that academics began to acknowledge the complexity of the individual and its active role in consumption. Similarly, this transformation from passive to active consumers was applied to media and media consumption, changing the traditional view on media, its sender/receiver roles and belief that producers could target homogeneous media audiences (Lister et al., 2009, pp ). Today, this view still exists. Jenkins & Deuze (2008) argue that media consumers today are no longer simple consumers that can be manipulated. Instead, they are becoming active participants and co-producers of media content. From this perspective, the boundaries between producers and consumers are becoming blurred, as we experience a move away from audiences to users and from consumers to produsers (Jenkins & Deuze, 2008, p. 9) Media convergence These shifting tendencies in the media landscape contribute to the emergence of a wide variety of processes that lead to convergence. In fact, the emphasis on convergence has been so pronounced in contemporary media literature that scholars (Jenkins, 2001; Jenkins, 2006; Deuze, 2007, Jenkins & Deuze, 2008) argue that we today live in a convergence culture. Jenkins (2001) states that we are experiencing a media convergence, which consists of five different processes: The technological convergence, the economic convergence, the social or organic convergence, the cultural convergence and the global convergence. The technological convergence occurs when various forms of media find their way into digital formats whereas the economic convergence occurs by the vertical and horizontal integration among media companies, for example, if Sony develops an interest in film, TV, books, games, etc. Social or organic convergence happens when users utilise multiple media simultaneously, for example, by listening to music whilst watching TV. The cultural convergence describes the ways media audiences are engaging with and making sense of these new forms of media content. And, finally, Jenkins (2001) mentions the global convergence, which is the cultural hybridity that develops from the international circulation of the media content (Jenkins, 2001, p. 93). While media convergence often refers simply to the melding of different media technologies, it is evident that Jenkins (2001) perceives media convergence to be more deeply rooted in wider societal developments and changes. 53

61 In this convergence culture, Jenkins & Deuze (2008) both argue that a convergence of production and consumption has occurred. This trend is defined as ( ) both a top-down corporate-driven and bottom-up consumer-driven process. Companies are learning how to accelerate the flow of media content across delivery channels to expand revenue opportunities, broaden markets, and reinforce viewer commitments. Consumers are learning how to use these different media technologies to bring the flow of media more fully under their control (Jenkins, 2006, p.18). In more specific terms, companies seek to extend their reach by merging, co-opting, converging and synergising their brands and intellectual properties across all of the new media channels (Jenkins & Deuze, 2008, p. 6). At the same time, the democratisation of media use signals a broadening of opportunities for individuals and grassroots communities to tell stories and access stories others are telling, to present arguments and listen to arguments made elsewhere, to share information and learn more about the world from a multitude of other perspectives (Jenkins & Deuze, 2008, p. 6). In agreement, additional scholars and practitioners recognise that these bottom-up processes have led to a collapse of the control paradigm of media. Macnamara (2010) argues that: The People Formally Known as the Audience are no longer simply consumers of media content and are no longer deprived access to powerful tools of communication (p. 8). Deuze (2007) makes a similar point when stating that: There is no audience anymore, content is everywhere made by users (p. 244). Hence, the new media network platforms and user-generated content give power and control to individuals Media ecology The above-mentioned top-down and bottom-up processes take place in an emerging media ecology, an environment where consuming media increasingly includes some kind of media production and where media behaviour involves some level of participation, cocreation and collaboration (Deuze, 2007, p. 247). In addition, two constituent trends contribute to this media ecology: the participatory media production and individualised media consumption. The participatory media production is emphasised because the media ecology allows for a wide variety of players (commercial, amateur, governmental, non-profit, educational, activist, etc.) to interact with each other in ever more complex ways. 54

62 As Jenkins & Deuze (2008) state: Each group has the power to produce and distribute content and each is being transformed by their new power and responsibilities in this media ecology (p. 5). In addition, the current media environment allows for people to be increasingly engaged in the collaborative production of we media. We media refers to sites like Wikipedia where consumers as co-producers can shape, create, tell and share information (Deuze, 2007, p. 247). Ultimately, consumers become producers of the media content. Equally important, there has been a development of individualised media consumption, as new media enable or even force us to enter into a personal information space where it is possible to exercise an unparalleled degree of control over what we watch, hear, keep, discard or forward. Indeed, the emerging media ecology allows users to control the flow of media by using Internet portals, search boots and recommendation systems (Deuze, 2007, p. 246). Lister et al. (2010) point out that the new media ecology contributes to shifts in the personal and social experience of time, space, and place, which have implications for the ways in which we experience ourselves and our place in the world (p. 13). This has created new experiences of the relationship between embodiment, identity and community. As argued in our section concerning postmodernism (cf. section ), the developed market economy allows for consumers to take commercial identities as important aspects of themselves and their collectives. Consequently, they use these identities to relate to themselves, to other people and to the world around them. Correspondingly, Lister et al. (2009) argue that produsers use media to build visible records of themselves and to relate to their surroundings (Lister et al., 2009, p. 15) Social media and social influence As outlined above, the media development, convergence and ecology have transformed the media landscape and empowered consumers, users and produsers. Additionally, the emergence of Web 2.0 and social media, in particular, has amplified this by altering the way people create, share, connect and collaborate online. While Han (2011) argues that the Internet has had a major influence on our society, he emphasises the scale of community and collaboration of knowledge that it has catalysed: the shift towards a user-generated culture that has been called Web 2.0 (Han, 2011, p. 1). 55

63 One of the most frequently discussed aspects of Web 2.0 has been the emergence of new social formations, in particular, social networking sites. Social media builds upon the ideological and technological foundations of Web 2.0, which allows for the creation and exchange of user-generated content (Kwahk & Ge, 2012, p. 1814). Today, social media is on everybody s lips and the popularity of social networking sites is enormous. Practitioners working with social media argue that it is no longer simply about entertainment; rather, it has become a common practice of our everyday life (Chung & Austria, 2010, p. 585). According to Chung & Austria (2010) social media can be defined as media that is published, created and shaped by individuals on the Internet, such as blogs, images, video and more, as well as online tools and platforms that allow Internet users to collaborate on content, share insights and experiences, and connect for business or pleasure (p. 581). Another definition describes social media as the democratisation of information, transforming people from content readers to content publishers. It is the shift from a broadcast mechanism to a many-way-model, rooted in conversation between authors, people and peers (Evans, 2008, in Tariq & Wahid, 2011, p. 1051). Both definitions emphasise the increased power of the individual, as social media allows people to create and share content, to connect with other people and to collaborate on creating content. Consequently, this empowerment of the individual has led to a consumer-dominated marketplace in which the consumer is king (Tariq & Wahid, 2011, p. 1050). Additionally, Li & Bernoff (2011) argue that this increased consumer-interaction focus is similar to the groundswell phenomenon. They state that groundswell is a spontaneous movement of people using online tools to connect, take charge of their own experience, and get what they need from each other; e.g. information, support, and ideas (p. 9). From this perspective, the phenomenon is not a flash in a pan, but a trend that represents an important, irreversible and complete new way for individuals to relate to companies and to each other. This is also evident with the advent of consumer websites, watchdog organisations and the ongoing creation of new social media platforms where individuals have the power to make their voice be heard and even play a part in making or breaking a brand through word-of-mouth (WOM) (Li & Bernoff, 2011, p. 124). 56

64 In relation to online WOM, both scholars and practitioners find social media particularly interesting, as it represents a consumer-dominated channel of marketing communication where consumers are independent of the market. According to research, people often rely on opinions of other individuals or groups when making a purchase decision. From this perspective, WOM is perceived to be more reliable, credible and trustworthy among consumers compared to company communication initiatives (Brown et al. 2007, p. 4). Brown et al. s (2007) viewpoint is rooted in the Social Impact Theory, which suggests that an individual s feelings, attitudes and behaviours can be influenced or changed by the presence of others. According to this theory, the impact of any information source is a function of three factors: strength, immediacy and number. Strength refers to the importance or social position of the source whereas immediacy is the time or closeness between source and target and numbers refer to the quantity of sources (Kwahk & Ge, 2012, p. 1816). Following this rationale, the more important a group is, the closer the distance is between the group and oneself. From a theoretical perspective, this type of social pressure is considered as normative social influence, referring to the expectations of conformity that another person or a group can create when attempting to persuade another individual to adapt to a product or brand (ibid.). Hence, the normative social influence is characterised by an individual s effort to comply with the expectations of others. In contrast to the normative social influence, Kwahk & Ge (2012) also refer to the informational social influence. This type of influence may occur in two ways; either when individuals search for information and knowledge from others or when they make inferences based upon the observation of the behaviour of others (Kwahk & Ge, 2012, p. 1816). However, regardless of type, these two kinds of social influence have been proved to affect consumer behaviour, both offline and online (ibid.). From this perspective, the application of Social Impact Theory can contribute to our understanding of social media s impact on consumer attitude and behaviour. In relation to the informational social influence, research conducted in 2008 revealed that 70% of consumers visit social media websites, such as message boards, social networking sites and blogs in order to get information about a company, brand or product (Kwahk & Ge, 2012, p. 1814). Additionally, the findings indicated that almost 50% of these consumers made a purchase decision based on the information they gathered on these sites. 57

65 Research conducted by Cvijikj et al. (2010), emphasises the importance of the normative social influence. Findings from their research revealed that consumers are more likely to believe in recommendations from people they know and trust, for example, friends and family members, rather than strangers or recommendation systems. The results obtained from their survey actually indicated that friends are considered as the most reliable source compared to other sources of information (Cvijikj et al., 2010, p. 31). As the above outlined research studies illustrate, the informational and normative social influences have a significant impact on consumers purchase decisions. Today, most companies have figured this out and they increasingly encourage consumers to use social media to share and like everything they see. From this perspective, it can be argued that users of social media regularly exercise some kind of social influence on their network when they post, like and share things they find online. Now that we have outlined some of the general characteristics of the new media landscape, we turn our focus to cross media communication, which constitutes the final part of our theoretical framework. 58

66 8. CROSS MEDIA COMMUNICATION In this section, we will introduce two related concepts, transmedia storytelling and cross media communication and discuss their interrelatedness. Subsequently, we will outline the different characteristics and perspectives of cross media communication and account for their relevancy in relation to our own developed framework. The work of Jenkins (2006), Sandvik (2010) and Buckner & Rutledge (2012) will be applied to give a thorough understanding of cross media communication. As the media landscape is changing and convergence is gaining footage within the world of media, researchers and practitioners wish to take advantage of these new opportunities. As a result, attention is drawn to the possibilities of using cross media communication. However, while the concept of cross media communication cannot be characterised as new, the growth of digital technology and the increased degree of interconnectivity have changed the entire nature of media and communication and forced organisations and industries to use media in different and more creative ways in order to reach and communicate with consumers (Davidson, 2010, p. 6) Transmedia storytelling or cross media communication? The concept of cross media communication takes a variety of forms and perspectives depending on author or research field. Within the field of marketing and branding, cross media communication is often referred to as transmedia storytelling. According to Buckner & Rutledge (2012), this means utilising the different media channels to communicate separate elements of a story, rather than using different media channels simply to repeat a story (p. 6). From this perspective, transmedia storytelling is about creating stories that deliver a unique piece of content in each of the applied channels. Each piece of content is not linked together, but connected in a narrative harmonisation (Buckner & Rutledge, 2012, p. 6). In this context, transmedia storytelling is applied on a campaign level as a way of creating a buzz about a movie or product by developing a story in which the movie or product in question is the centre of attention. 59

67 The overall aim of the transmedia storytelling campaign is then to invite the audience to participate on a personal level, as the story unfolds across multiple media platforms (Buckner & Rutledge, 2012, p. 6). Thus, according to Buckner & Rutledge (2012), the key words of transmedia storytelling are coherence, experience and participation. A different area in which the concept of transmedia storytelling is applied is within the field of culture. Jenkins (2006), one of the scholars whose work on cross media communication has contributed immensely to the development of the field, also focuses on the concept of transmedia storytelling. In consistency with Buckner & Rutledge (2012), he argues that it builds upon participation, experience and multiple channels: Transmedia storytelling is a process where integral elements of a fiction get dispersed systematically across multiple delivery channels for the purpose of creating a unified and coordinated entertainment experience (Jenkins, 2006, p. 94). As Jenkins (2006) definition indicates, he believes that transmedia storytelling takes its point of departure in the entertainment industry. In order to illustrate this, he uses the example of the fan culture surrounding the Twilight Saga. First, the story was launched as a book and then adapted to a movie, which led to four sequels. Consequently, a fan base developed and Twilight merchandise, such as clothing and make up, was produced. In this case, the audiences took on the story and made it their own while the entertainment industry supplied it with sufficient content and possibilities to keep the audience wanting more (van der Spek, 2012, p. 5). This example clearly shows how the audience plays a crucial role in terms of expanding the story into something more than a couple of books. In this sense, the use of transmedia storytelling helps to ensure that a story lives on various media platforms instead of being bound to one single channel distribution. After this review of media and transmedia storytelling, we will briefly sum up this section. Subsequently, we discuss the relevancy of these theories in relation to our own developed framework. 60

68 Sum up From Buckner & Rutledge s (2012) and Jenkins (2006) perspective, transmedia storytelling concerns the utilisation of different media channels to communicate separate elements of a story. Overall, the story needs to deliver a unique piece of content. In addition, these scholars believe that transmedia storytelling primarily needs to be applied on a campaign level in order to create a buzz about a product or movie. The aim is to invite the audience to participate on a personal level, as the story unfolds across multiple media platforms. In their opinion, the key words of transmedia storytelling are coherence, experience and participation Relevancy in relation to our framework Taking Buckner & Rutledge s (2012) and Jenkins (2006) view on transmedia storytelling into consideration, we disagree with these scholars on several points. First, we reject the idea that transmedia storytelling should be applied only on a temporary campaign level to create a buzz. From our perspective, this type of communication needs to be part of a long-term corporate communication strategy in which working with different media and engaging consumers and users become an essential constituent of a company s vision and identity. Second, we question the idea that an experience should be unified and coordinated as Jenkins (2006) suggests. Instead, in consistency with our social constructionist stance, we believe that there should be room for multiple interpretations and multiplicity in order for the audience or users to engage in their own personalised experience and understanding of it. Finally, while Jenkins (2006) argues that transmedia storytelling is applicable primarily to the entertainment industry, we believe that it can be applied to several other contexts. In particular, we find it suitable for organisations operating within the commercial world, as we believe that the tale of a product or service can be just as interesting as an imaginary character or universe. However, despite our disagreements, we still find some of the elements from Buckner & Rutledge s (2012) and Jenkins (2006) work applicable. More specifically, we agree with their view that transmedia storytelling includes storytelling, experience, user participation and multiple channels. Consequently, we wish to place these elements in our own developed cross media communication framework. 61

69 We will now turn our focus to the work of Sandvik (2010), as we find his perspectives on cross media communication suitable for our understanding of the concept. His framework builds upon the work of Jenkins, one of the most recognised researchers within the field of transmedia storytelling and cross media communication. Sandvik s (2010) definition will be explained in this section and applied in the remainder of our thesis. In contrast to the previously mentioned academics, Sandvik (2010) uses the term cross media communication and not transmedia storytelling Cross media communication Sandvik s (2010) work on cross media communication takes it point of departure in TV programmes, as they are often part of a larger cross media communication initiative where the Internet plays a crucial role. Such programmes are often interacting with or are part of comprehensive websites, which expand the overall experience universe. Consequently, these new formats have the ability to target users through several media channels at the same time, which can lead to increased engagement, involvement and interaction (Sandvik, 2010, p. 5). From Sandvik s (2010) frame of reference, cross media communication refers to a communication strategy, which entails that a media message is being distributed in a coordinated and interactive manner through multiple media and on multiple media platforms (p. 6). In addition, it is crucial that: The different channels are interacting with each other in order to expand the overall universal experience (p. 16). According to Sandvik (2010), cross media communication increases the potential of reaching more users and new audiences. In this context, it is important to note that Sandvik (2010) applies the term user when describing the double role of the recipient in a cross media communication system that allows for participation and influence (Sandvik, 2010, p. 9). Hence, in consistency with our scientific framework, Sandvik (2010) views the user as an analysing, interpretative viewer and a contributing actor. Jenkins (2006) agrees with this view, stating that: The circulation of media content across different media systems, competing media economies, and national borders depends heavily on consumer s active participation (p. 3). 62

70 In particular, the new media landscape (cf. section 7.1.) has made it possible for users to be active, contributing and participatory. Correspondingly, Sandvik (2010) argues that one of the main characteristics of computer-based technology communication is that it provides an interactive structure of potentially collective and collaborative communicative actions that users can engage in. The user then becomes more than a passive recipient. Instead, he or she can actively influence and affect the communication content and thereby become a co-producer. Hence, the user goes from being a user to a produser (Sandvik, 2010, p. 9). By acknowledging that users or produsers are active, analysing and interpretative participants, Jenkins (2006) and Sandvik (2010) both emphasise the importance of interactivity, which is one of the key elements of cross media communication. As indicated in the above definition of cross media communication, Sandvik (2010) refers to two types of interactivity. The first type is the interaction that occurs between the user and the producers and allows the user to become an active part of the cross media experience, whether it takes place across the Internet, through video, mobile devices or other platforms (ibid.). The second type refers to the interaction that occurs between the different media platforms. The understanding of this second type of interactivity is vital in order to realise the full potential of cross media communication (Sandvik, 2010, pp. 8-9). Additionally, Sandvik (2010) believes that cross media communication represents an interactive media system in which the actions and choices of the user become an implemented part of the media communication itself. Consequently, this type of interactive media communication introduces a new communication form that applies a different ontology than the traditional understanding, which considers messages to be definitive, autonomous and independent of the recipients different interpretations (Sandvik, 2010, p. 15). Instead, the interactive communication perspective rejects the idea that the sender is the master of meaning or content by allowing participants to use direct or physical influence, not merely interpretative, on the form and content of the communication. From this perspective, the classic distinction between media and message and interpretation has collapsed; the two cannot be separated, as the user s interpretation is implemented in the collaborative inventions of the communicative structure (Sandvik, 2010, pp ). 63

71 Cross media communication, not multi media communication In Sandvik s (2010) opinion, a carefully coordinated communication strategy lays the foundation for creating experiences and communicating successfully across several, and often different, media platforms. Therefore, he distinguishes between multiple media communication where several media is in play, in contrast to cross media communication, which entails far more than simply applying various media platforms (van der Spek, 2012, p. 7). Sandvik (2010) finally argues, that in relation to cross media communication, it is necessary to gain a thorough understanding of the characteristics of the different media platforms, how they affect the form and content of message, how they interact with each other and what part of the message should be communicated through which medium (Sandvik, 2010, p. 16). Hence, from Sandvik s (2010) perspective, it is crucial that there is a reason for applying the particular platform in a given communication strategy. There need to be something special to gain and experience from each medium, which, eventually, in the interplay with the other media, will lead to added value for the users. Thus, according to Sandvik (2010), cross media communication needs to be thought of as a communicative division of labour between platforms where the consumer s increased attention, freedom of action, and loyalty is in focus (p. 16). After this review of cross media communication, we will briefly sum up this section. Subsequently, we discuss its relevancy in relation to our own developed model of analysis Sum up In Sandvik s (2010) framework, he argues that cross media communication includes a media message that is being interactively communicated on multiple media platforms. Moreover, he emphasises the importance of interaction between platforms to expand the overall experience universe. Sandvik (2010) operates with the notion of users, referring to the active, interpretative and contributing actors in the communication process. Hence, from his point of view, cross media communication enables the users to actively influence and affect communication content, thereby becoming a co-produser. Finally, interactivity is highlighted as one of the key elements of cross media communication. 64

72 Here, Sandvik (2010) points out two types of interactivity; the interaction between users and producers and the interaction between the different media platforms applied in a cross media communication strategy Relevancy in relation to our framework We find Sandvik s (2010) work on cross media communication particularly useful in our thesis, as it focuses on interactivity and experience, two of the main characteristics we have outlined in the section concerning postmodern consumption. Moreover, Sandvik s (2010) view on users as active, interpretative and participatory actors in communication and media consumption is consistent with our social constructionist position, as we also believe that the interpretation and participation of individuals play a crucial role in meaning-creation. Finally, we agree with Sandvik s (2010) emphasis on suitable media platforms and share his belief that each channel needs careful consideration before it is applied to ensure that the user will gain something special from interacting with it. Taking the elements from transmedia storytelling emphasised in section 8.1. and adding them to Sandvik s framework, we believe that cross media communication consists of the following elements: channel and suitability, storytelling, interactivity and user participation. Based on the above, the relevant cross media communication elements are illustrated in the following part of our model of analysis: Figure 8: Cross media communication elements added to our model of analysis 65

73 Now that we have accounted for our theoretical framework, we will proceed to the third part of our thesis: the empirical analysis. 66

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75 PART 3 EMPIRICAL ANALYSIS This part consists of four main sections in which the first section introduces our own developed model of analysis. In the second section, we analyse Burberry s corporate identities and examine how these are expressed through communication, behaviour and symbolism. In the third section, we examine Burberry s use of cross media communication. The section ends with a thorough discussion of how our findings are related to the main concepts of postmodern consumption. 67

76 9. INTRODUCTION TO OUR CASE 9.1. Burberry Established as an outerwear brand in 1856 by Thomas Burberry, the brand has a history of innovation and discovery. In 1880, Thomas Burberry developed gabardine, a waterresistant and breathable fabric in which the yarn is waterproofed before weaving. Consequently, at that time, the brand was chosen by the great explorers of our time and today, Burberry is still defined by its authentic outerwear heritage and the iconic trench coat (Burberry, 2012). Burberry is a FTSE 100 company with annual sales of over 1.5 billion. It operates 450 stores and employs nearly employees in 31 countries worldwide. The business is driven by design, marketing and retail-led strategies with digital focus and a global reach. With a clear vision and distinctive values, Burberry attempts to connect heritage with cutting-edge technology and digital media, for example, by creating unique brand innovations such as Burberry Acoustic, Art of the Trench and fully immersive runway shows. Currently, the company has more than 14 million fans on Facebook, over 1.4 million followers on Twitter and more than 17 million views on the Burberry Youtube Channel (Burberry, 2013). Burberry s digital transformation The company s transformation started in 2006 when Angela Ahrendts became the CEO. At that time, Burberry was grossly underperforming; while the overall sector was growing at around 12-13% a year, the company s rate was only 1-2%. Burberry was not keeping pace with the rapid development in the luxury goods market, neither in terms of innovation, nor in terms of products and services and the competition from the large French and Italian peers was tough (Capgemini Consulting, 2012). Consequently, with a rediscovered focus on its outerwear, Burberry decided to target the millennial consumer, in their 20s, with a clear focus on the emerging economies where the average high net worth customer was typically 15 years younger than the ladies who lunch segment that the competitors were targeting. With this new focus on a younger segment, Burberry wished to communicate and engage these customers by using their mother tongue: digital (Capgemini Consulting, 2012). 68

77 After a couple of years, the new business strategy started to pay off and Burberry began opening new stores a year. Consequently, the company also wanted to use digital innovation to engage customers more effectively online as well as in the physical stores. According to Angela Ahrendts, CEO, the vision was that any person, any constituency, needing to interact with Burberry would enter into burberry.com and enjoy exactly the same experience as an in-store customer. In this sense, the website needed to represent the Burberry World where customers could visit all the different parts of the business and experience every facet of the brand. Additionally, Burberry also aimed to create a retail theatre concept in which the company used the digital technology from burberry.com to bring the brand to live in the stores; from music to the video content on giant screens to the ipads carried by all Burberry s sales associates that gave access to the full global collection. Hence, from Burberry s perspective, everything needed to be connected digitally as it was in reality and vice versa (Capgemini Consulting, 2012). Being connected to its customers on various social media channels is also something Burberry pays great attention to. As mentioned previously, the company has 14 million fans on Facebook and Christopher Bailey, Chief Creative Officer, talks to them every week, showing them videos, taking them inside the design studio, counting down to the runway show and much more. Hereby, Burberry attempts to communicate in a personalised manner by engaging the customers and allowing them to enter into the Burberry World (Capgemini Consulting, 2012). Arguably, digital has been a catalyst for everything in Burberry. According to Burberry, the company today is a social enterprise that incorporates social, digital and mobile elements across the entire organisation and connects with their customers and employees in a new and innovative way. As CEO, Angela Ahrendts, states: To any CEO who s sceptical at all: You have to. You have to create a social enterprise today. You have to be totally connected to everyone who touches your brand. If you don t do that, I don't know what your business model is in five years (Benioff, 2012). With Burberry s extensive focus on the digital, we wish to analyse how Burberry s use of cross media communication constructs additional identities to the company s corporate identity. As mentioned previously, we will do this by examining burberry.com and the company s presence on Facebook, Google+, Twitter, Pinterest and Instagram. 69

78 After having introduced Burberry, our case study, we will now proceed with an introduction to our own developed model of analysis. 70

79 10. INTRODUCTION TO FRAMEWORK We have developed a dynamic framework that includes interactivity and allows for the construction of multiple identities. It draws upon the theoretical fields of postmodernism, corporate identity and cross media communication. The model is illustrated as follows: Figure 9: Model of analysis We will now account for the different elements we have integrated into our model and outline how our model will be applied in our subsequent analysis Corporate identity The focus on multiplicity in identity construction has manifested itself in our model by applying Leitch & Motion s (1999) identity framework, which acknowledges multiple identities. More specifically, it pays attention to CSPs, the central values of a company, which can represent multiple identities. In order to examine how these values are communicated, we have connected CSPs with communication, behaviour and symbolism, the main elements from Birkigt & Stadler s (1986) CI Mix. However, in contrast to these scholars view that communication, behaviour and symbolism constitute corporate identity, we argue that they can be analysed as means of expressions. In the first part of our analysis, we will analyse Burberry s corporate identity by identifying its central values and examine how these are communicated through its communication, behaviour and symbolism. 71

80 10.2. Cross media communication In our model, we have integrated the main elements from transmedia storytelling and cross media communication put forward by Buckner & Rutledge (2012), Jenkins (2006) and Sandvik (2010). In the second part of our analysis, we will therefore analyse how channel and suitability, storytelling, interactivity and user participation can be found in Burberry s use of cross media communication Postmodernism As stated previously, we take an inside-out approach in which we first examine Burberry s corporate identity and its use of cross media communication. In the final part of our analysis, we zoom out and place the findings in a greater perspective. Consequently, we investigate how the findings from our analysis are related to hyperreality, self-symbolism, entertainment based experiences, co-creation and individualism/tribalism the main concepts related to postmodern consumption. Having outlined our own developed model of analysis, we will apply it to analyse how Burberry s use of cross media communication constructs additional identities to the company s corporate identity and how this is related to the concepts that postmodernism works with. 72

81 11. ANALYSIS OF BURBERRY S CORPORATE IDENTITY Our analysis consists of three different parts. First, we analyse Burberry s corporate identity. Second, we look at the company s use of cross media communication. Finally, we analyse the findings from our analysis in relation to some of the main concepts related to postmodern consumption. Our analysis of Burberry s corporate identity takes its point of departure in the company s website, burberry.com. Here, we have chosen four distinct parts, which each represent different aspects of Burberry. The different parts are: A/W12 Main Campaign, Regent Street Flagship Store, A/W13 Menswear Show and Art of the Trench. Because some of the parts, for example, the main campaign and runway show, can be found on almost any fashion company s website, we find it particularly interesting to examine how Burberry chooses to present these. Other parts, such as Regent Street Flagship Store and Art of the Trench are exclusive initiatives that are unique to Burberry, which is why they are included. In order to analyse Burberry s cross media communication, we will analyse how Burberry uses cross media communication to communicate the A/W13 Menswear Show on burberry.com, Facebook, Google+, Twitter, Pinterest and Instagram. Finally, we analyse the findings from our analysis in relation to some of the main concepts related to postmodern consumption Analysis of Burberry s Common Starting Points (CSPs) In order to analyse Burberry s corporate identity, we identify its central values, the CSPs that can represent its multiple identities. As argued in section , a company s values can derive directly from a corporate strategy. Therefore, we include parts of Burberry s annual report 2011/2012 (appendix 1) in which the company s brand strategy is outlined. Additionally, we use parts from Capgemini Consulting s interview with Burberry s CEO, Angela Ahrendts, (appendix 2) to substantiate the claims we make regarding the values we identify in Burberry s annual report. 73

82 In the annual report, Burberry defines its brand strategy as follows: Founded in 1856, Burberry today remains quintessentially British, with outerwear at its core. Digital luxury positioning and the optimisation across innovative mediums of the trench coat, trademark check and Prorsum knight heritage icons make the brand purer, more compelling and more relevant globally, across genders and generations (Annual Report, 2012, p. 18). When analysing the first quote in order to identify Burberry s values, it is evident that age, Britishness and outerwear represent the core values that constitute the backbone of Burberry s brand. In relation to its age, Burberry states: Founded in 1856, Burberry today remains quintessentially British, with outerwear at its core (ibid.). The fact that the age is emphasised in the very beginning of the quote attests to its significance. In this context, Burberry uses its age to symbolise that the company has a long history and has survived throughout the years, thereby obtaining a certain status. However, although Burberry is presented as an old brand with age and history, it is brought up to date because of the word today. Concerning Britishness, it is stated that: Burberry today remains quintessentially British, with outerwear at its core (ibid.). When using the word remains, it is indicated that Burberry always has and always will stay true to its British roots. By emphasising this devotion, we argue that Burberry attempts to add substance and perpetuity to its brand. Furthermore, the importance of the Britishness is emphasised by the use of the amplifying adverb, quintessentially. In order to determine why Burberry has this extensive focus on Britishness, Angela Ahrendts has stated: We re British. There were lots of big French brands, big Italian brands, big US brands. But only one big British brand (Capgemini Consulting, p. 7). Hence, being British is applied strategically as a country-of-origin, branding strategy in order to differentiate Burberry from its competitors. Finally, it is stated in the annual report that: Burberry today remains quintessentially British, with outerwear at its core (ibid.). The focus on outerwear is related to Burberry s history of innovation and discovery, as the brand, from the very beginning, was chosen by some of the greatest explorers of our time. The history and heritage as an outerwear brand have resulted in the fact that Burberry today has chosen outerwear as its trademark. 74

83 This observation is also consistent with Angela Ahrendts comment on Burberry s brand: We were born from a coat. Others were born from luggage, shoes, saddlery. But only we were born from a coat (ibid.). Analysing this quote, it becomes evident that the focus on outerwear, similar to Britishness, has been applied in order to differentiate Burberry from the other players in the market. When analysing the second part of Burberry s brand strategy, it is evident that being digital and luxurious are central values that lie at the core of Burberry s brand. In relation to Burberry s aim to be a digital luxury brand, it is stated that: Digital luxury positioning and the optimisation across innovative mediums of the trench coat, trademark check and Prorsum knight heritage icons make the brand purer, more compelling and more relevant globally, across genders and generations (Annual Report, 2012, p. 18). The fact that digital is written down as a part of the brand strategy attests to Burberry s commitment to it. Burberry s commitment is furthermore emphasised in Angela Ahrendts statement about the company s digital transformation: Digital would dictate and drive many of the big decisions we needed to take ( ) digital has been a catalyst for everything in the company. While the vision starts at the top, the groundswell is organic (Capgemini Consulting, p. 11). Furthermore, analysing the first words of the sentence, we argue that digital and luxury are somewhat contradictory words. Previously, being a luxurious fashion brand was synonymous with exclusivity, VIPs and some degree of snobbishness. This made it difficult for ordinary people to access some luxury brands. However, today the Internet and digitalisation have made it possible for everyone to go online and become part of these exclusive fashion worlds. By pairing luxury with digital, we argue that Burberry attempts to make its exclusive luxury brand more accessible. While the above parts of the brand strategy refer to Burberry s core values: its age, Britishness, outerwear heritage, digital and luxury, we argue that the last part of the strategy focuses on the visual expressions of these values. As Burberry states: ( ) The optimisation across innovative mediums of the trench coat, trademark check and Prorsum knight heritage icons make the brand purer, more compelling and more relevant globally, across genders and generations (Annual Report, 2012, p. 18). Analysing this quote, it is evident that some of Burberry s values (its age, Britishness and outerwear) are expressed, also when communicating visually. 75

84 The iconic trench coat and the check have been Burberry s trademark since the company was established as an outerwear brand in The Prorsum ( forward in Latin) equestrian knight logo dates back to 1901 when Thomas Burberry sold outerwear to British soldiers (Burberry, 2012). Therefore, we argue that the trench, check and logo encapsulate the essence of Burberry and stand as strong symbols of the company s Britishness and century-long focus on outerwear. Additionally, we believe that Burberry strategically uses these means of visual expression to create a strong visual identity. Hence, when people see the trench, check or logo, they subconsciously think of Burberry. Finally, we argue that Burberry s digital commitment is brought to the fore as well, as it is stated that these visual symbols need to be communicated through innovative mediums. To briefly sum up this section, we believe that Burberry s central values are: its age, Britishness, heritage as an outerwear company and its commitment to be a digital luxury brand. Consequently, as indicated in the brand strategy, we argue that the company has the following corporate identities: Burberry as a 157-year old company, Burberry as a British company, Burberry as a company with a heritage as an outerwear brand and Burberry as a digital company. Moreover, we believe that the trench coat, check and Prorsum logo represent the visual expressions of these corporate identities. 76

85 11.2. Burberry s identities expressed through communication, behaviour and symbolism As visualised in the model, a company s multiple corporate identities are expressed through communication, behaviour and symbolism. Therefore, we will now turn our focus to burberry.com in order to analyse how Burberry s corporate identities are expressed through the way the company acts, communicates and uses symbolism A/W12 Main Campaign In Burberry s main campaign, all the company s different brands, that is, Prorsum, Brit and London are present. The campaign consists of twenty-four parts, eight short film and sixteen still images. The different parts are mixed and each film is often followed by two or three still images. They all follow a visualised storyboard at the bottom of the screen, indicating that this is a connected story. However, each part has its own headline, thereby representing its own little story (appendix 3) (video 1-8) Communication Age Shot in Royal Naval College in London on a movie-like set with smoke, rain and fog, the main campaign has a very poetic and cinematic expression with emotive black and white images. Overall, the campaign creates associations to the old Hollywood movies, which gives its a timeless and classic touch. When paying attention to the fact that Burberry was established in 1856, we argue that the black and white colours, cinematic expressions and reference to old Hollywood movies can be related to Burberry s age and history. While we do realise that the company s emphasis on its age is not directly communicated, we believe that the timeless expressions of the campaign can be viewed as a celebration of the classics that still remain. 77

86 Britishness Throughout the main campaign, the focus on Britishness is dominating. Among other things, this is expressed by featuring the British actress, Gabriella Wilde, and British musician, Roo Panes, as campaign stars. Besides Roo Panes role in this campaign, he is also one of the artists of Burberry Acoustic 2 and his music from Acoustic is used as the soundtrack. Furthermore, the location of the campaign, the Greenwich s Royal Naval College in London, emphasises Burberry s wish to stress its Britishness. Being a listed World Heritage Site, the college represents an architecturally iconic masterpiece that, similar to Burberry, has a long and impressive history. Finally, throughout the campaign, Burberry has included a number of artefacts that, in their very nature, are British. For example, the trench coat, the Union Jack hanging from one of the main buildings, a number of old London lamp posts and the iconic black taxies that are unique to London. Analysing the main campaign, the imagery, film, music, location, stars, artefacts and even the weather, are British in every respect. We believe that this substantiates our claim that being British is one of Burberry s multiple corporate identities. Heritage as an outerwear brand In this campaign, Burberry has chosen to dress Roo Panes and Gabriella Wilde exclusively in jackets and coats. Evidently, this gives substance to our claim that Burberry s heritage as an outerwear brand constitutes one of its corporate identities. Throughout the different parts of the campaign, Gabriella Wilde and Roo Panes are wearing different types of outerwear in a variety of qualities and designs. In particular, the short film contains different footages in which the jackets, coats and trench coats are filmed up close, focusing on the details and the fabrics. By creating a campaign, which is dedicated entirely to outerwear, it is evident that Burberry still cherishes its heritage as an old outerwear brand. This emphasis on heritage portrays Burberry as passionate company that has managed to stay true to its roots and has, during the years, advanced its knowledge and art of tailoring outerwear. This is also showcased in the main campaign in which Burberry attempts to communicate its position as a luxury outerwear fashion brand. 2 A project developed by Burberry to support upcoming British music talents 78

87 Behaviour Being digital Analysing the main campaign to examine if Burberry s behaviour gives an indication of a digital identity, it is apparent that the company has created a digital campaign that differs significantly from traditional campaigns. In contrast to other fashion brands, which often use images and videos to present their collections, Burberry has taken its A/W12 Main Campaign to the next level by creating an interactive story with shoppable features. Consequently, customers can immerse themselves in a story while purchasing the products directly by pausing the film and clicking on the featured items (appendix 4). Taking the entire main campaign into consideration, we argue that it is quite comprehensive and impressive with its movie setting and mix of different film and imagery. For some brands, that would also be satisfying. However, Burberry chooses to go the extra mile, to twist and modify the campaign and add interactive and innovative features in order to create a digital experience. Hence, this type of behaviour illustrates that the digital identity represents one of Burberry s corporate identities. Finally, with this digital initiative, Burberry can be viewed as a first-mover in the fashion industry. This position can also be traced back to Burberry s birth where Thomas Burberry was the man who developed the gabardine fabric. Hence, Burberry century-long innovative outlook still remains today, but within different business areas Symbolism The trench coat, trademark check and Prorsum knight heritage logo As argued previously, the trench coat, trademark check and Prorsum knight logo are symbols that represent Burberry s brand. Taking the company s history and values into consideration, we argue that these visual symbols encapsulate the essence of Burberry and stand as strong symbols of the company s Britishness and century-long focus on outerwear. Therefore, we will now examine how the trench, check and logo are present and how they create associations and attribute certain values to Burberry. 79

88 Analysing the main campaign, it is possible to identify the different symbols throughout the story. For example, an entire film is dedicated to the trench coat. In this film, Gabriella Wilde and Roo Panes simply lay on the stairs of the Royal Naval College wearing the classic trench coats while the camera takes close-ups of details, for example, of raindrops falling on the waterproof fabric. The Burberry check is also displayed inside Roo Panes trench coat in the end of the film. While we did not succeed in identifying the logo in this campaign, we argue that the location indirectly symbolises the equestrian knight Prorsum logo, as the Royal Naval College is the official equestrian competition site for the Olympics. The display of the trench, check and logo bear witness to the fact that Burberry s visual symbols play an important role in the communication of its corporate identities because they enable Burberry to express its core values in a simple manner. Additionally, these symbols have the power to create associations and attribute certain values to Burberry. For example, we argue that the sequence with the raindrops falling aesthetically on the trench coats creates associations to the birth of the company where Thomas Burberry invented the gabardine fabric, which eventually became the signature fabric of the trench. Ultimately, this association attributes quality and innovation to the Burberry brand Regent Street flagship To present the Regent Street store, Burberry has created a 2.13-minute long video that takes the spectator inside the Burberry World. Burberry is the knowledgeable tour guide, showing the visitors around in the store. The video is divided into three parts: the first part focuses mainly on the store whereas the second part illustrates how all the different digital experiences from burberry.com can also be explored in store, for example, the live streaming of global events, concerts from Burberry Acoustic and the AW12 Main Campaign and fashion show. Finally, the last part of the video is dedicated to show how Burberry, through British design and craftsmanship, has restored 121 Regent Street (video 9). 80

89 Communication Age Burberry as a 157-year-old company is illustrated several times the video. For example, it contains sequences demonstrating an old-fashioned production process followed by a sequence in which a Bespoke artisan uses a sewing machine to attach a fur collar and stitch a Burberry logo in a customised trench coat. Additionally, the last part of the video is a celebration of British design and craftsmanship. Here, a number of different artisans are filmed as they carefully and dedicatedly, by hand, customise and adorn the 121 Regent Street store. For example, one artisan hand paints the Burberry logo that welcomes customers at the entrance; another assembles different parts of the handmade London lamp post hanging from the ceiling in the store. A third artisan moulds the romantic cement stuccos, which adorn the ceiling. We argue that the above-mentioned sequences take the spectator back to the good old days when everything was made by hand and focus was on quality and craftsmanship. This is in stark contrast to the fast moving, paced, efficientoriented and often outsourced methods, which characterise today s production. Ultimately, we believe that Burberry has included the sequences in the video to illustrate that the dedication and effort that the British artisans put into their work is similar to the way Burberry designs and creates its products. Hence, Burberry also wishes to be perceived as a British artisan. Britishness In contrast to the main campaign in which Burberry s focus on its British identity was highly emphasised, the Regent Street video only contains a limited number of cues that testify to Burberry s British roots. However, one of the most noticeable cues can be related to the name of the store. Rather than simply naming it Burberry or Burberry Flagship Store, the company has chosen to highlight the street name, 121 Regent Street. Being one of the most famous and thorough fared shopping streets, Regent Street can be said to encapsulate London. Hence, Burberry s heritage as a British brand is emphasised indirectly by locating the first store, which brings burberry.com to life, on Regent Street, London. Furthermore, similar to the main campaign, Burberry has included a number of artefacts that, in their very nature, are British. For example, the trench coats and the old London lamp posts. 81

90 Additionally, pouring down rain, which often characterises the British weather, is displayed on multiple full-size screens in the store. The same screens also play music and show videos from the British artists of Burberry Acoustic. Analysing the Regent Street video, we argue that these small cues symbolise Britishness and thereby function as reminders of Burberry s British identity. Heritage as an outerwear brand Burberry s heritage as an outerwear brand is also visible in the Regent Street video. Similar to burberry.com, customers who enter the Regent Street store have the opportunity to experience Burberry Bespoke and create their own iconic trench coats according to their personal specifications. With this initiative, it is evident that the trench coat, in particular, is of significant value to Burberry. Therefore, it is not possible to customise bags, dresses or other Burberry products only trench coats. By creating Bespoke and dedicating an entire section of the store to trench coats, we argue that Burberry indeed has an identity as an outerwear brand Behaviour Being digital Analysing Burberry s behaviour in relation to the Regent Street video, it is apparent that Burberry has a digital identity. In the beginning of the video, it is stated that the company is bringing burberry.com to life (video 9); indicating that Burberry s digital universe is the point of departure of the creation of the physical store, 121 Regent Street. With this initiative, we argue that Burberry has taken a rather untraditional approach in which burberry.com has dictated and guided the content and experiences of the physical store, not the other way around. This approach is in stark contrast to other fashion brands that often focus first on the brick-and-mortar store and then pay attention to their website. Moreover, in many of these cases, the physical store and the website are disconnected or perceived as two separate entities. However, with 121 Regent Street, Burberry is seamlessly blurring physical and digital worlds (video 9). The following examples will illustrate this. 82

91 The first example of how the physical and digital worlds are blurred is Burberry Bespoke. On burberry.com, Bespoke is a main category. Consequently, as stated previously, an entire section of 121 Regent Street is dedicated to the customisation of trench coats. Here, the blurring of physical and digital becomes even more pronounced, as customers can smell, touch and see a wide variety of trench coats. At the same time, through digital screens and pop-up projections, customers are presented digitally to all the varieties and combinations of fabrics, colours, designs, etc. similar to Bespoke online. Additionally, in order to mirror the online experience in-store, 121 Regent Street has a number of full-length screens, transitioning between audio-visual content displays and livestreaming hubs. Similar to burberry.com, it is possible to watch global events streamed live, for example, fashion shows, videos and concerts from Burberry Acoustic. Finally, 121 Regent Street has number of digital and interactive mirrors that transform into personalised screens and display relevant product and video content whenever a customer places a physical product near them. While we do not know how this is achieved, we assume that Burberry has used some kind of new technology, for example, RFID chips or tags that use radio-frequency fields to transfer data from a tag attached to an object. Analysing the Regent Street video, it is evident that digital plays a crucial role in relation to Burberry s identity. In fact, the very act of designing 121 Regent Street, bringing burberry.com to life and transforming the digital into physical, indicates that Burberry, itself, believes that being digital constitutes the core of its identity. Burberry s digital behaviour and its approach to creating the concept store differ significantly from other luxury brands. For example, Louis Vuitton often focuses extensively on ensuring that the different LV stores are designed in great consistency with each other to create the same look, feel and experience. Evidently, this means that visiting a LV store in London offers the same experience as visiting one in Singapore. In contrast, Burberry does not attempt to create consistency between its different stores, but emphasises coherence between its digital and physical worlds. Thereby the company blurs the two, ensuring that the customer will gain a coherent experience online as well as offline. Ultimately, we argue that digital is the driving force, trademark and USP of 121 Regent Street and Burberry, making it possible to differentiate the company from competitors. 83

92 With digitalisation and today s progressive technology development, digital is synonymous with constant change, innovation and being a frontrunner. In our opinion, 121 Regent Street shows that Burberry invests in being digital. This is also consistent with the Burberry brand, Prorsum, and the company s history of innovation Symbolism The trench coat, trademark check and Prorsum knight heritage logo Analysing the Regent Street video, it is possible to identify a number of symbols. Since there is an entire section of the store dedicated to Bespoke (cf. section ), the most visible symbol is the trench coat. Additionally, sequences throughout the video illustrate that the Burberry check is visualised on the backside of the full-length screen placed in the middle of the store. Finally, there are a number of short video clips briefly showing the weaving of a check lining, the Prorsum logo stitched into a trench coat and a Burberry Prorsum signboard placed outside 121 Regent Street. Besides the short video clips, Bespoke and the check on the screen illustrate that Burberry s symbols are not only visible on products, but are also implemented into the overall design of 121 Regent Street. This testifies to the importance of these symbols and how significant they are in relation to the visual communication of Burberry s identity A/W13 Menswear When watching the A/W13 Menswear Show, the composition of the screen is divided in three and the runway show takes up most of the space in the middle. The right side of the screen functions as social media feed where Burberry s tweets from Twitter and photos from Instagram can be explored. The left side of the screen features sequences of still images. As the models walk down the runway, the images change accordingly (video 10). 84

93 Communication Britishness While we have not succeeded in identifying any direct indicators of Burberry s age in the A/W13 Menswear Show, there are a number of actions that point to the company s roots and British heritage. In the beginning of the runway show, which takes place in Milan, a grand image of London city in gloomy weather with some of its most iconic buildings, for example, Saint Paul s Cathedral, the House of Parliament and Big Ben is projected on the entire back wall of the runway (appendix 5). Moreover, the runway music is from the featured artists of Burberry Acoustic. Finally, all the models used in this show are Caucasian males with a distinct classic and British look. Therefore, we assume that they are of British origin. With this touch of Britain, Burberry manages to display its Britishness. Additionally, the use of British music artists and models is also consistent with Burberry s use of the British stars, Gabriella Wilde and Roo Panes, featured in the main campaign. Hence, it can be argued that Burberry s choice of models, stars, artists, etc. used in all its activities expresses its British origin. Heritage as an outerwear brand In the runway show, the male models wear rubber, fur, print, gabardine, wool, etc. qualities and fabrics in all shapes and sizes. However, the common denominator is outerwear, as all the models wear either coats or jackets. Therefore, we argue that Burberry s heritage as an outerwear brand is particularly visible in the A/W13 Menswear Show. The fact that Burberry chooses to show only outerwear in the A/W13 Menswear Show substantiates our claim that the company has outerwear at its core Behaviour Being digital Analysing Burberry s behaviour in relation to the A/W13 Menswear Show, it is evident once again that Burberry has a digital identity. Some of the initiatives that most strongly express the digital aspects of Burberry s identity are the live streaming and click-and-buy functions of the show (appendix 6). The day the show was presented, customers all over the world could stream the fashion show and watch it live as is took place. 85

94 Additionally, customers were given the experience of buying the products directly from the runway for a limited period of time. Another digital initiative related to the runway show includes Burberry s use of social media platforms, making it possible for customers to explore the looks, love the looks on Facebook or share them on Facebook, Google + and Twitter. Moreover, Burberry has created a wall with a social media feed, which includes the company s tweets from Twitter and photos from Instagram that take the customers behind the scenes. Analysing the A/W13 Menswear Show, we believe that Burberry uses its digital identity to create unique customer experiences. For example, with the live streaming, Burberry invites all of its customers to experience the runway show from the front row. Additionally, by making it possible to shop the products as the models walk down the runway, customers are given the opportunity to be the first to buy the items from Burberry s latest collection. Evidently, these initiatives give the customers a feeling of being important and unique and represent Burberry as an open and accessible company. As argued previously, these initiatives are in stark contrast to other luxury fashion brands, which often deliberately invite only celebrities and VIPs to the fashion shows and ship the collections to the stores six months later. Finally, the fact the Burberry s customers can share the runway experience on various social media platforms indicates that the company understands the importance of interaction in digital communication. Taking the above findings into consideration, we argue that Burberry, by being digital, continuously attempts to create new ways of expressing its identity and interacting with customers. Ultimately, we believe that Burberry s focus on the digital sets news standards for communication, service and customer experience Symbolism The trench coat, trademark check and Prorsum knight heritage logo Analysing the A/W13 Menswear Show, we identify the trench coat as the most visible symbol by far. In the show, Burberry has chosen to rethink the trench coat and design it in a number of new fabrics, for example, animal print, rubber and fur. By designing the coat in these new styles, we argue that Burberry combines old heritage with new fashion. 86

95 More specifically, the fact that Burberry s century old trench coat is still the focal point of Burberry s designs today testifies to a company that has not forgotten its heritage as an outerwear brand. However, at the same time, it also illustrates a company that has the courage to take chances and renew itself, which is consistent with Burberry s innovative outlook. Furthermore, it is possible to identify the Burberry check on the walls of the location and on most of the products that the models wear and carry, for example, scarves and bags. Consequently, the Burberry check functions as a strong way of visually communicating Burberry s values and identity Art of the Trench As stated previously, our analysis includes Burberry s A/W12 Main Campaign, Regent Street Flagship Store, A/W13 Menswear Show and Art of the Trench. After having examined the first three initiatives and analysed how Burberry s corporate identities are expressed through communication, behaviour and symbolism, we will now move on to Art of the Trench. Contrary to the previous analysed parts, this initiative differs significantly in content and purpose. Whereas Burberry is the main creator and messenger of the A/W12 Main Campaign, 121 Regent Street video and A/W13 Menswear Show initiatives created to achieve commercial goals we argue that the purpose of Art of the Trench is to illustrate a different expression of the Burberry brand. Consequently, we will take a less structured approach when analysing the last initiative and not systematically go through each of the identities (age, Britishness, heritage as an outerwear brand, digital, symbolism). Art of the Trench Art of the Trench is Burberry s photo-sharing website dedicated to images, past and present, of people sporting the Burberry trench coat. The website showcases images from both professional fashion photographers and the public. According to Burberry, Art of the Trench is a living document of the trench coat and the people who wear it (appendix 7). 87

96 One of the most important features of Art of the Trench is its user-generated content. Visitors can submit their own images, as well as choose their favourite photos, comment on individual pictures and share them with others through Facebook, Twitter, Delicious and mail. The gallery also links to Burberry s website or Facebook pages of each contributor. A simple interaction design aids browsing the collection (pictures can be filtered by popularity, gender, style, colour and weather) and the sound of an Acoustic soundtrack completes the experience as users can navigate in and out of the gallery Communication, behaviour and symbolism Age, britishness, heritage as an outerwear brand, digital, the trench coat, trademark check and Prorsum knight heritage logo Throughout the above analysis, we have argued that outerwear and the trench coat lie at the core of Burberry s values. With Art of the Trench, an entire website dedicated to the trench coat, it is evident that the trench coat is actually the most significant symbol of Burberry, as it encapsulates the central values that define the company. Designed and created by Thomas Burberry in 1856, the trench coat today represents Burberry s centurylong commitment to outerwear, quality and craftsmanship and British heritage. We argue that Art of the Trench is Burberry s celebration of these values. While Art of the Trench, from Burberry s perspective, is a celebration of its values, the website is also the place where Burberry customers can be a part of an online community and interact with people who share the same passion: the trench coat. When clicking on Art of the Trench on burberry.com, a separate website opens and navigates the user away from the main site. This indicates that Burberry wants its customers to interact with each other with little interference from the company. From the customers point of view, this creates a sense of ownership of the website. With the promotion of ownership, Burberry appears to be a relaxed company that allows for its customers, to some degree, to express themselves freely. From this perspective, Art of the Trench also becomes a celebration of freedom of style and individuality. More specifically, it illustrates that there is a trench coat for everyone regardless of style, nationality, gender or age. Hence, businessmen, street style teenagers, celebrities and babies all wear the same trench coats but with individual expressions. 88

97 As Burberry states: Together we are creating a body of images reflecting personal style from across the globe (Burberry, 2012). By creating an online user-generated forum, a digital platform that creatively connects Burberry with its customers and customers with each other, the company shows that it, despite its age, is able to create different and innovative, digital customer experiences. From this perspective, it can be argued that Burberry is a 157-years-old company with the mind-set of a 25-year-old. Besides having a young mind-set, the creation of an online community where customers can control content and expression represents Burberry as a transparent company that has faith in its own products and customers. First, we argue that Burberry s launch of a website that focuses solely on the trench coat expresses a belief that the Burberry products and brand live up customer expectations. Second, the fact that Art of the Trench is an open and online community indicates that Burberry trusts its customers to such a great extend that it believes that the platform will not be used to generate negative WOM. However, while Art of the Trench allows for user interaction and creation of content, we are aware that Burberry, in the end, has sat the frame and is in total charge of the website. Therefore, we also believe that this is a commercially created initiative, which ultimately has the aim of selling trench coats. This claim is further substantiated by the fact that there is a direct link to Burberry s webshop in the bottom of the screen. After having analysed the A/W12 Main Campaign, Regent Street, A/W13 Menswear Show and Art of the Trench in order to identify Burberry s corporate identity and examine how they are expressed through communication, behaviour and symbolism, we will now discuss our findings from the analysis. 89

98 Discussion of corporate identity findings Our analysis of Burberry s CSPs in the company s brand strategy revealed that Burberry has a number of corporate identities: Burberry as a 157-year-old company, Burberry as a British company, Burberry as company with a heritage as an outerwear brand and Burberry as a digital company. Also, our analysis showed that the trench coat, check and Prorsum knight heritage logo are visual symbols of these identities. Analysing how these identities were expressed through Burberry s communication, behaviour and symbolism, we identified all of the company s identities in the A/W12 Main Campaign, 121 Regent Street, A/W13 Menswear Show and Art of the Trench. However, not all the identities were equally visible in the different initiatives. Additionally, the analysis illustrated that the use of ambiguity in Burberry s communication of identities varies according to the abstractness/concreteness and possibility of visual representation. For example, when communicating its British and outerwear identity, Burberry uses a number of visual artefacts and symbols to convey the message, for example, Union Jack, London, the weather, jackets and coats, etc. In contrast, when communicating that Burberry is a 157-year-old company with a digital identity it is far more difficult to use visuals. In these cases, Burberry makes use of ambiguity to a greater extend Burberry as a 157-year-old company (communication) Visually communicating age is a rather difficult task. Therefore, our analysis illustrates that Burberry does not communicate its age directly, instead, it focuses on the acquired knowledge it has gained through the years and how this knowledge is put into use. In the Regent Street video, for example, Burberry as a 157-year-old company is reflected in video sequences where the company s focus on old-fashioned craftsmanship and quality is displayed. By highlighting this focus, we argue that Burberry attempts to present itself as a knowledgeable and experienced company that cherishes old-fashioned qualities and virtues. In addition, our analysis of the main campaign revealed that Burberry uses its age to acquire a certain status. More specifically, the company attempts to create links to old things that, due to age and quality, still remain today and therefore can be called classics. 90

99 For example, old Hollywood movies have inspired Burberry to produce the A/W12 Main Campaign. By creating associations to these timeless classics, Burberry indirectly indicates that it has the same quality and status as these movies. Overall, we argue that the emphasis on age symbolises that Burberry, through its centurylong history, has acquired crucial knowledge and skills related to the craftsmanship of creating quality outerwear. Evidently, this adds substance and status to Burberry s brand. In addition, we argue that ambiguous communication in relation to age contributes to the notion of a richer brand because it allows for multiple interpretations. By not directly communicating the meaning of being of 157 years old, customers have the possibility of assigning own values to the symbolic meaning of the Burberry s age, which gives room for projection. Ultimately, this results in greater perceived similarity between Burberry and its customers Burberry as a British company (communication) In contrast to the above paragraph, which illustrated that Burberry uses symbolic meanings and indirect communication to express its age, our analysis revealed that the company s British identity is communicated visually very clearly. Throughout the A/W12 Main Campaign, 121 Regent Street video, A/W13 Menswear Show and Art of the Trench, Burberry consistently applies a number of artefacts and symbols that symbolise London and Britishness, for example, the trench coat, London locations and iconic buildings and the use of British models and campaign stars. Consequently, we argue that the diversity and the consistent and extensive use of these British symbols testify to their importance and significance to Burberry and its British identity. In contrast to the communication of Burberry s age, which allowed for multiple interpretations and projection, Burberry s identity as a British company is unambiguously communicated. Consequently, the symbolic meaning of Burberry s British identity is more or less predetermined by the company. For example, the display of Saint Paul s Cathedral, Royal Naval College, House of Parliament, etc. portrays Burberry, London and Britain in a certain way. By focusing on the most iconic buildings of London and prides of British architecture we argue that Burberry consciously attempts to communicate its position as an upscale, artistic and classic British brand. 91

100 Consequently, the clear and unambiguous communication of being British does not leave room for multiple interpretations or projection, which could mean that some customers would find it difficult to identify with the company and its identity Burberry as company with a heritage as an outerwear brand (communication) Similar to the communication of Burberry s British identity, our analysis illustrated that Burberry s identity as a heritage outerwear brand is expressed consistently and clearly through visual communication. Throughout the A/W12 Main Campaign, 121 Regent Street video, A/W13 Menswear Show and Art of the Trench, outerwear in general and the trench coat in particular are in focus. Consequently, we argue that Burberry, by showing outerwear continuously, expresses its heritage as a brand worn by explorers and thereby manages to stay true to its roots, even today. Similar to Burberry s other identities, the company attempts to attach certain symbolic meanings to outerwear and the trench coat. For example, in the Regent Street video, there are a number of behind the scenes sequences in which the lining of a coat is weaved in Burberry check and a Bespoke artisan applies the finishing touch on a customised trench coat. We argue that the trench coat, in this context, symbolises skilled craftsmanship, traditional-bound manufacturing and high quality outerwear. This is in contrast to the A/W13 Menswear Show, which displays the trench coat in new, fashionable, bold designs and qualities. Here, we argue that the rethinking of the traditional and recognisable look of the trench coat symbolises innovation, one of the foundational values of Burberry. Overall, our analysis of Burberry as a company with an outerwear heritage reveals that the communication is consistent and unambiguous. However, a variety of visual expressions enable Burberry to attach different symbolic meanings to the trench coat. For example, by juxtaposing oppositions, such as tradition with innovation, the company becomes more edgy and diverse, which contributes to the notion of an extended Burberry brand. 92

101 Burberry as a digital company (behaviour) We believe that the digital identity is Burberry s most dominant identity. In fact, the findings from our analysis revealed that digital dictates everything Burberry does and that digital is used strategically to create innovative customer experiences. In the A/W12 Main Campaign, for example, Burberry has applied the digital to create an interactive campaign with pause-and-buy features that allow customers to take control of content. Similarly, Burberry s use of the digital in the A/W13 Menswear Show enables customers to live stream the show and buy products directly from the runway. However, we argue that the strongest indicator of Burberry s digital identity is the video about 121 Regent Street. The fact that Burberry has invested so extensively in its website and transferred it to a physical flagship store illustrates Burberry s true commitment to the digital. Hence, by bringing burberry.com to life, attempting to blur physical and digital worlds, the company emphasises that its digital and physical appearances are equally important. Since Burberry s digital identity is grounded in its behaviour, we believe that the digital constitutes the core of the company. Consequently, Burberry s case illustrates that a corporate identity not necessarily needs to be communicated verbally or visually, but can be expressed just as effectively by actions. In contrast to other companies that attempt to walk the talk ; Burberry actually manages to talk the walk. Evidently, the company s digital identity and its actions differentiate Burberry from its competitors and create unique points of differences Symbolism Our analysis showed that the trench coat, check and Prorsum knight heritage logo are strong visual symbols that Burberry uses continuously to communicate its multiple corporate identities. Finally, we argue that Burberry applies these symbols because they have the status and power to encapsulate the essence of Burberry, its age, history and British roots. 93

102 11.3. Preliminary conclusion of the corporate identity analysis By applying the first part of our own developed model of analysis, we have analysed Burberry s corporate identity. The findings from our research reveal that Burberry has four different corporate identities, Burberry as a 157-year-old company, Burberry as a British company, Burberry as company with a heritage as an outerwear brand and Burberry as a digital company, which are expressed through the company s communication, behaviour and symbolism. However, besides identifying the corporate identities outlined in the brand strategy, we have also managed to find additional identities. In relation to age and heritage as an outerwear brand, Burberry consistently emphasises its focus on quality and craftsmanship. We believe that these attributes constitute two additional identities. Moreover, through Burberry s digital behaviour and that fact that the company creates unique digital experiences, we argue that openness, accessibility and innovation also constitute identities. Consequently, we argue that Burberry s communication and behaviour are just as significant in constructing identities than the identities outlined in the company s strategy. Overall, the findings from our analysis suggest that Burberry s multiple identities, to some extend, can be viewed as contradictory or inconsistent, as oppositions are often juxtaposed in the company s expressions. In some of the initiatives, Burberry is both presented as a traditional/innovative company, a 157-year-old/digital company and exclusive/accessible company. According to the functionalistic corporate identity theories, this notion of inconsistency in identity communication is often viewed negatively. However, working within our developed framework, we believe that these oppositions can easily coexist as long as they are consistent, not with each other, but with Burberry s central values. Despite the fact that our findings indicate that some of Burberry s identities are not consistent with each other, the overall analysis illustrates that all the different identities are in consonant with the company s core values. In fact, our analysis reveals that Burberry is extremely consistent when it comes to the communication of these. Consequently, it has been possible to identify Burberry s age, Britishness, heritage, digital commitment and visual symbols in all of the analysed initiatives, as they capture the essence of Burberry. After having identified Burberry s multiple corporate identities, we will now proceed to the second part of our analysis and analyse Burberry s use of cross media communication. 94

103 12. ANALYSIS OF BURBERRY S USE OF CROSS MEDIA COMMUNICATION In our analysis, we have identified Burberry s four corporate identities: Burberry as a 157- year-old company, Burberry as a British company, Burberry as a company with a heritage as an outerwear brand and Burberry as a digital company. Moreover, we have found a number of attributes that add to the construction of additional identities: Burberry as a quality conscious company, Burberry as a company that treasures craftsmanship and Burberry as an open, accessible and innovative company. In this second part of our analysis, we seek to analyse how the use of cross media communication can construct additional identities. As argued previously, cross media communication includes channel and suitability, storytelling, interactivity and user participation. Hence, when we analyse Burberry s use of cross media communication, we focus solely on its behaviour, that is, how it acts and behaves on the multiple communication platforms. In order to analyse Burberry from a cross media communication perspective and examine how this contributes to additional identities, we have chosen to focus on one of the four initiatives already analysed in relation to corporate identity: the A/W13 Menswear Show. The initiative is chosen because it is present on various social media platforms (Facebook, Google+, Twitter, Pinterest, Instagram appendix 8). Consequently, this will give us an indication of Burberry s use of cross media communication Channel and suitability Website As argued previously, the composition of the screen I divided in three and the runway show takes up most of the space in the middle (appendix 9). The right side of the screen is a social media feed containing Burberry s tweets from Twitter and photos from Instagram. To the left, the different looks from the runway can be explored and customers can connect with Facebook to love this look and share on Facebook, Twitter, Pinterest and Google+. When pausing the show, a box pops up and it is possible to share the show on Facebook, Twitter and Google+. Finally, it is possible to connect with Burberry on a number of different social media platforms: Facebook, Google+, Twitter and Pinterest. 95

104 Analysing the website to determine the suitability, we argue that Burberry has managed to utilise the full potential of the website as a digital platform. Through the website, Burberry has invited all of its customers to watch the runway show live. However, by giving customers the chance to buy exclusively from the runway, watch behind-the-scene shots before, during and after the show, share with friends and connect with Burberry, the company has integrated additional features that enhance the overall experience. By using the website to make a fully interactive runway show and making the runway and shopping experience convenient for the customers, we believe that Burberry has used the website to create additional customer value. Consequently, we argue that the online version of the A/W13 Menswear Show is suitable for the versatility and infinite opportunities that a website holds Facebook helps you connect and share with the people in your life On Facebook, Burberry has ten posts related to the A/W13 Menswear Show from the 10 th to the 16 th of January 2013 (appendix 10). The first post is posted on the 10 th of January two days before the show. Here, an image is uploaded, illustrating the set-up and show space of the runway show while the text states: The Burberry Autumn/Winter 2013 Menswear Show, live on - Saturday 12 January, 4.30 pm Milan time, 10.30sm EST, 7.30am PST. The same day, Burberry has uploaded a small video teaser from its own YouTube channel, which illustrates the creation of the A/W13 Menswear collection and preparations of the runway show. The accompanying text states: Be one of the first to see the Burberry Prorsum Autumn/Winter 2013 Menswear collection live on The day after, on the 11 th of January, one day before the show, Burberry uploads an image of an invitation addressed to the Burberry Facebook Fans while the text says: You are invited to watch the Prorsum A/W13 Menswear Show live from Milan on - Saturday 12 January, 4.30 pm Milan time, 10.30sm EST, 7.30am PST. On the day the show takes place, Burberry uploads an image of Christopher Bailey right before the show. The text says: The bright lights of the Burberry show space Christopher Bailey pictured backstage. Watch the show live today on pm Milan time, 10.30sm EST, 7.30am PST. 96

105 On the same day, 4.30 pm Milan time, Burberry encourages customers to watch the Burberry Prorsum A/W13 Menswear Show live on Facebook and posts the actual show. On the 13 th of January, Burberry creates a photo album with 48 images from the runway with the accompanying text: I classics. The day after, the company uploads a video with highlights from the Burberry Prorsum A/W13 Menswear show featuring backstage shots, VIP guests and models on the runway. Finally, on the 15 th of January, Burberry creates an additional photo album with the same header: I classics. This album contains up close images of Burberry items and behind-the-scenes shots from the show. After looking at Burberry s posts about the A/W13 Menswear Show and analysing their suitability for Facebook, we argue that Burberry strategically manages to utilise the different features of this medium. As indicated by the content, Burberry has used Facebook to create hype and spread the word about the show by continuously posting posts and attaching beautiful and evocative images and videos related to the show. Because Facebook is particularly useful for sharing and distributing content, the company can rely on its 14 million fans to spread the word through their network. As argued in our theory section regarding normative social influence, customers are more likely to believe in recommendations from people they know and trust, for example, friends and family members. From this perspective, Burberry s message regarding the A/W13 Menswear Show is more likely to spread more effectively and with greater reach because the fans can share on Facebook. Taking the more general features of Facebook into consideration, we believe that the channel with advantage can be used to communicate visually, as it is suitable for posting videos, large images and entire photo albums. Ultimately, when jumbled on a company s Facebook page, all the activities, images and videos create a timeline collage with an unstructured, yet personal touch. Correspondingly, this personal portrayal also allows for an informal tone of voice and more personalised way of communicating. Analysing the posts, it is evident that Burberry also communicates more casually and personally on Facebook by using signs instead of words, for example, I Classics and by posting a tailored invitation to its fans. Due to the status of Facebook as a rather personal medium, the quality of Burberry s posts and the fact that customers proactively have chosen to become fans of Burberry, we argue that the company s posts is probably not viewed as pushy commercial spam. 97

106 Hence, when the posts related to the show pop up on the customers personal Facebook wall, Burberry is viewed equal to the other Facebook friends. Additionally, Burberry succeeds in keeping a sober commercial tone. While the company often uses imperatives and encourages fans to watch or see, it does not practice the hard sell by stating that customers should buy from the runway or share content. Consequently, we argue that Burberry s posts related to the A/W13 Menswear Show are suitable for Facebook and Burberry s wish to create hype and spread the word Google + share the right things with the right people Because the aim of both platforms is to share, Facebook and Google+ also share many of the same features, such as interface and possibility to like, +1 and share. Comparing Burberry s Facebook posts to the company s posts on Google +, it is evident that the dates, texts and content are identical (appendix 11). As argued in section , we believe that Burberry manages to create posts that are suitable for Facebook, which is also the case with Google +. However, since YouTube is owned by Google, there are additional features to experience when watching videos on Google + compared to Facebook. For example, it is possible to watch videos in 3D, get additional information about the video and subscribe to the source of the YouTube channel. Finally, followers can share videos on Google + a feature not possible on Facebook where fans can only share on their personal wall. Consequently, we argue that, while Burberry s posts are suitable for Google +, it would beneficial to create more video content because this platform allows for more advanced video experiences. 98

107 Twitter find out what s happening, right now, with the people and organisations you care about On Twitter, Burberry has 32 tweets about the A/W13 Menswear Show in the period from the 10 th to the 16 th of January 2013 (appendix 12). Out of the 32 tweets, only three tweets do not have images or YouTube videos attached. The first ten tweets, tweeted from the 10 th to the 12 th of January, have the purpose of creating awareness and hype about the show and followers are encouraged to get ready discover and watch the upcoming A/W13 Menswear Show. Similar to Facebook, Burberry has created a tailored invitation to its Twitter followers and the images and videos uploaded are also similar to the ones on Facebook. In the hours leading up to the show, Burberry starts making a countdown: One hour to go Watch the Burberry Prorsum show ( ) The show begins in 10 minutes As the runway show is about to begin, Burberry tweets live from the show space and uploads Instagram snapshots: A projection of the London & Milan skyline as show space fills up and British at the #Burberry Prorsum 2013 Mens show, live from Milan Burberry tweets four times during the show while Instagram snapshots, picturing the models as they walk down runway, are uploaded to Twitter. After the show, Burberry tweets about and takes Instagram snapshots of the celebrities present at the A/W13 Menswear Show: Christopher Bailey backstage at the #Burberry Prorsum Menswear show ( ) British actors Luke and Harry Treadaway with Christopher Bailey The remaining 18 tweets from the 13 th to 16 th of January primarily focus on products and highlights from the show. In general, the images and videos from these tweets can also be found on Facebook. Analysing Burberry s tweets about the A/W13 Menswear Show to determine if they are suitable for Twitter, we argue that Burberry in general does not use the medium as intended. While the company is very active on Twitter and manages to use it appropriately during the A/W13 Menswear Show, tweeting in real time and giving followers exclusive glimpses of the show and behind the scenes, the remaining tweets primarily focus on products. Evidently, this conflicts with the purpose of Twitter, as tweets are intended as what is happening now real time feeds with personal interaction. Taking these characteristics into consideration, we argue that Burberry, by continuously tweeting about and showcasing products, appears as a very impersonal and distanced brand. 99

108 Consequently, we argue that followers would probably be more interested in Christopher Bailey s personal thoughts than generic sales oriented tweets from Burberry s marketing department Pinterest organise and share things you love From the A/W13 Menswear Show, Burberry has uploaded 48 runway images to the album Burberry Prorsum Menswear show (appendix 13). Additionally, five images, including a personal invitation to Burberry Pinterest followers and a YouTube video teaser, are uploaded to the album prior to the show. Overall, the images are professional images of high quality, not Instagram photos. They are shot from the same position and angle on the runway, showcasing different looks and creating associations to a look book. Furthermore, each of the runway images has accompanying detailed product descriptions, for example, black contrast collar calfskin trench coat and heart print iphone case on the runway of the Burberry A/W13 Menswear show and link to the A/W13 Menswear Show on burberry.com where it was possible to buy the items three weeks after they were presented on the runway. Analysing Burberry s images on Pinterest to determine if the content is suitable, we argue that Burberry, while having a decent understanding of the channel, does not fully grasp the potential of Pinterest. On one hand, Burberry manages to utilise that Pinterest is a visual medium that celebrates the mainstream values the polished and retouched to create and share an overall visual and aesthetic experience. More specifically, the company has uploaded high quality and professional images and strategically attached detailed product descriptions and website links in the hope that followers will re-pin them and share the image, text and link on their personal boards. Hence, when re-pinned and shared by followers, Burberry ensures that the relevant information to make a purchase is available. However, we argue that Burberry fails to take advantage of the fact that Pinterest can be used to express personality and lifestyle. In fact, Pinterest is often associated with the creation of inspirational mood boards, which consist of personal pins selected and jumbled to create entire universes and arouse certain feelings. 100

109 By uploading 48 similar images with a distinct product oriented focus, we argue that Burberry s board on Pinterest looks more like an online shopping catalogue to promote sales than an inspirational mood board. Consequently, we believe that Burberry s pronounced focus on sales is not suitable for Pinterest Instagram fast beautiful photo sharing In relation to the A/W13 Menswear Show, Burberry has taken 17 Instagram snapshots, which depict the runway show, models, celebrity guests and backstage. Most of the photos are real time shots taken with a smart phone and they all come with small photo texts: Christopher Bailey and Tinie Tempah (@tiniegram) backstage at the #Burberry Prorsum Menswear 2013 show #MFW and Animal prints on the #Burberry runway live from Milan MFW. Furthermore, similar to Facebook, Twitter and Pinterest, Burberry has addressed a personal invitation to Instagram followers prior to the show. Analysing Burberry s photos to determine if the content is suitable, we argue that Burberry successfully manages to use Instagram to create additional value for its followers. By taking real time unretouched shots with a smart phone and uploading them directly to Instagram, Burberry gives the followers a unique opportunity to experience the runway show up close and personally, which creates a feeling of being a VIP. Finally, Burberry manages to add personality to its photos and brand by allowing small imperfections, for example, blurry snapshots or hands covering up a camera lens. The fact that Burberry does not upload professionally taken shots with focus on optimal lightning and the right pose, contributes to the notion of Burberry as a more relaxed and casual brand Storytelling As argued previously, the aim of cross media communication is to create stories that deliver a unique piece of content in each of the applied channels. While each piece of content is not linked to each other, it is connected in a narrative harmonisation. Hence, cross media communication is used to communicate separate elements of a story rather than using different media channels simply to repeat a story. 101

110 Analysing Burberry s posts, tweets, pins and Instagram photos, we argue that Burberry does not use storytelling in a connected narrative harmonisation to communicate about the A/W13 Menswear Show. Instead, the company simply posts separate pieces of content on the different social media platforms to attain one goal: to promote and create hype about the show. Additionally, by consistently copying and repeating the exact same posts and photos on Facebook, Google+, Twitter, Pinterest and Instagram, we argue that Burberry not only fails to create a story, but also fails to deliver unique content on each of the platforms. Hence, examining Burberry s A/W13 Menswear Show in relation to storytelling, we argue that the company neither manages to create a story nor communicate content that can unfold on different platforms. However, when analysing The Burberry Prorsum Autumn/Winter 2013 Menswear Show Teaser posted on Facebook, Google+, Twitter, Pinterest and YouTube, we argue that it is the only piece of content that has storytelling elements (video 11). In this 56 second long video, Burberry strategically creates a story about how the A/W13 collection and runway show in Milan are brought to life. However, as suggested by Rutledge & Buckner (2012), Burberry has not chosen to communicate separate elements of the story on each of the applied platforms. Rather, the entire story is repeated on each platform. In order to emphasise the location of the runway show, the first sequences of the storytelling video are shot in the inner city of Milan. The next sequences show drawings of coats and jackets from old Burberry catalogues, a dressmaker s mannequin and the illustrations of coat sketches. Throughout the video, small clips from the show space in Milan are mixed with the process of making the A/W13 collection. These sequences focus on illustrating the careful construction of the different Burberry products by showing close ups of details and quality of fabrics. Consequently, this presentation appeals to the senses of the spectator, contributing to the fact that it is almost possible to feel the fabrics of the coats and smell the leather of the bags. Finally, the last sequences of the video are from the show space, illustrating how empty seats are about to be filled and everything is prepared for the big show. The video ends with the statement: Live from Milan 12 January Burberry.com. Burberry s use of storytelling in its tale about the collection and runway show helps the company reach a number of objectives. First, it gives Burberry the possibility to communicate and emphasise its core values and identities. 102

111 By continuously focusing on outerwear and heritage, quality and craftsmanship, Burberry manages to bring its personality into the story while, at the same time, illustrating how its values permeate the company in every aspect of its business. By creating a story about the collection and runway show, Burberry indirectly gets its values and messages across and gives the customers the opportunity to immerse themselves in the story and become more engaged. Second, Burberry s use of storytelling functions as a cliffhanger, as the company, in the video, allows customers to get a sneak peak behind the collection and scenes before the show is presented. This arouses interest among the customers, which creates a desire to be involved in the next part of the story the actual runway show. Consequently, the show becomes more than simply a show; it becomes a story that customers wish to hear, watch and participate in Interactivity: customer/brand interaction and platform interaction As argued by Sandvik (2010), there are two types of interaction related to cross media communication. The first type is the interaction that occurs between the user and the producers and allows the user to become an active part of the cross media communication experience. The second type refers to the interaction that occurs between the different media platforms. According to Sandvik (2010), the understanding of this second type of interactivity is vital in order to realise the full potential of cross media communication Interaction between Burberry and its fans and followers: The social media platforms we have analysed are, in their very nature, social and have a number of elements and functions implemented to promote social interaction. For example, it is possible to comment and share, re-pin on Pinterest, re-tweet on Twitter, like on Facebook and Pinterest, +1 on Google+ and on Instagram. Therefore, we examine Burberry s interaction with its fans and followers by analysing if Burberry does something additional to foster interaction, for example, pose questions, answer questions, give feedback on comments, etc. Hence, our analysis of Burberry s interaction goes beyond the already established interaction features that the social media platforms possess. 103

112 Analysing Burberry s presence on the various social media platforms, we argue that Burberry fails to interact with its fans and followers. More specifically, Burberry does not comment, share, like or answer questions on Facebook, Google+, Twitter, Pinterest or Instagram. However, the company has a Burberry Customer Service Twitter account, which is available 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. While it is not possible to contact this account directly, customers can pose questions to the official Burberry Twitter account and the customer service will answer. However, our analysis showed that only technical questions, for example, in relation to the live streaming of the show, are answered. Hence, Burberry is very selective when it chooses to interact with its customers. Interaction only occurs on a business level, not on a personal level. Moreover, when analysing the permission to create content on Burberry s various social media accounts, we found that it was only possible to post or upload content to our personal profiles. For example, when posting a comment regarding the A/W13 Menswear Show on Burberry s Facebook page, it was only shown on our walls, not Burberry s wall. Consequently, we argue that Burberry primarily uses the social media platforms as oneway communication channels. By ignoring and paying no attention to comments and likes and deliberately not allowing customers to upload and post content on the company s different pages, accounts and profiles, we argue that Burberry merely views its fans and followers as passive recipients. Evidently, this creates a distance between Burberry and its fans and followers and portrays the company as inaccessible and reserved. However, we argue that Burberry, by not interfering, increases the desire for fans and followers to interact with each other Interaction between channels As argued previously, Burberry does not create stories that can unfold on different platforms; rather, the company uses the platforms to repeat the same content. This decreases the degree of interaction between the applied channels. When analysing how Burberry s social media channels interact with each other, it is evident that the degree of channel interaction is limited. In fact, the only place where platforms interact is on Burberry s website. Here, the social media feed integrates A/W13 show tweets with behind-the-scenes Instagram photos. 104

113 In our failure to discover any interaction between Burberry s channels, we instead analyse how the different media platforms are linked or integrated with each other, as we believe that this will give us an indication of Burberry s purpose with the channels. When examining Burberry s Facebook page and Google+ profile and clicking on about, there are links to burberry.com, Art of the Trench, Facebook, Twitter and YouTube. Moreover, on Twitter, Pinterest and Instagram, there is only one link, which leads to burberry.com. Hence, the overall aim of the limited linking on social media platforms is to direct traffic to Burberry s own website. However, when entering the company website, there are no direct links to any of the social media platforms, which indicates that Burberry either does not understand the potential of linking the platforms or simply does not wish to integrate its channels. However, when watching the A/W13 Menswear Show on burberry.com, there are links to Facebook, Google+, Twitter and Pinterest. But it is not Burberry s own accounts you can connect with, instead, it is only possible to comment and share on your own wall or profile. For example, when pausing the show, a box pops up, saying: Share with your friends on Facebook, Google + and Twitter. Similarly, in extension of the social media feed, a text says: Connect with Facebook and tell your friends you're watching the show. Finally, when taking a closer look at the runway looks, it is possible to connect with Facebook and post: I love this look on your personal timeline and share the looks on Facebook, Twitter, Google + and Pinterest. By choosing not to integrate and focus on channel interaction, we argue that Burberry fails to take advantage of the synergy that the integration of social media can lead to, for example, more traffic, visibility, accessibility, the potential of more likes,, re-tweets, re-pins and greater reach. However, the fact that Burberry only uses social media to encourage fans and followers to share, comment and like on their own accounts, indicates that exposure and showcasing of products and experiences are more important to Burberry than social interaction and customer relationships. 105

114 12.4. User participation According to Sandvik (2010), user participation in cross media communication allows participants to use direct or physical influence, not merely interpretative, on the form and content of the communication. As argued in the above analysis, Burberry does not wish to interact with its customers on a personal level. Needless to say, the company does nothing to ensure that its customers become active co-producers of content. While it is possible to share and comment on own personal social media platforms, Burberry deliberately chooses not to allow customers to create or moderate content on Burberry s official website and social media channels. After we have applied the first two parts of our own developed framework and analysed Burberry s corporate identity and its use of cross media communication, we will now briefly discuss the cross media communication findings. Finally, we will discuss how Burberry s use of cross media communication constructs additional identities to the company s corporate identity Discussion of cross media communication findings Our analysis of Burberry s use of cross media communication in relation to the A/W13 Menswear Show illustrates that Burberry is primarily present on the following social media platforms: Facebook, Google+, Twitter, Pinterest, Instagram and burberry.com. Analysing the website in order to determine the suitability of the content, we argue that Burberry manages to use its website to create unique customer experiences. Additionally, in relation to the content posted on the social media platforms, we believe that the company manages to utilise Facebook and Google+ by creating hype and encouraging its fans and followers to share and spread the word about the upcoming show. Burberry s upload of beautiful and large images and videos is suitable for both Facebook and Google+ because these channels allow for visual communication. Furthermore, Burberry s way of communicating is rather personal and informal, which is in line with the more casual tone of voice applied on Facebook and Google+. 106

115 However, on Twitter, Burberry does not manage to create content that is suitable for the channel. More specifically, the company primarily creates product-oriented tweets that do not match Twitter and its encouragement to create real time, personal and speak your mind tweets. Similarly, on Pinterest, Burberry has a very product-oriented focus. While the company utilises the fact that Pinterest allows for re-pins, Burberry uses this channel to showcase products, creating associations to an online shopping catalogue. As argued previously, this type of content is not suitable for Pinterest, as this platform primarily is used to express personality and lifestyle. However, Burberry succeeds in using Instagram appropriately by taking personal and exclusive behind-the-scenes shots, which allow customers to experience the runway show up close and personally. Finally, our analysis reveals that Burberry neither uses storytelling, interaction nor user participation when communicating about the A/W13 Menswear Show. In relation to storytelling, for example, Burberry fails to create a story that can unfold on the different platforms; instead, the company repeatedly communicates the same pieces of content on all the platforms. Furthermore, our analysis of the interaction between the brand and its fans and followers indicates that Burberry, by not commenting, sharing, liking or answering questions, does not prioritise interaction. This claim is further substantiated by the fact that it is not possible to upload or post any content on Burberry s social media accounts, profiles or pages; fans and followers are only allowed to post content on their own personal accounts. Consequently, we argue that Burberry uses the social media platforms to practice one-way communication. Finally, in relation to channel interaction, our analysis indicates that there is limited interaction between the applied channels. In fact, the website is the only place where Twitter and Instagram interact. Turning our focus to the linking and integration between the social media platforms, it is evident that Burberry attempts to drive traffic to its website. However, when entering the website, customers are only allowed to post or upload content to own personal accounts and profiles, not Burberry s. Taking Burberry s overall performance on the different social media platforms into consideration, we argue that Burberry in fact does not use cross media communication. By not creating a story that unfolds on different platforms and not interacting or allowing for user participation, Burberry merely uses multiple media communication, which simply refers to the application of various media platforms, not cross media communication. 107

116 12.6. Construction of additional identities This discussion is divided into two parts. In the first part, we will include the findings from our analysis of Burberry s corporate identity and cross media communication in order to analyse how Burberry s use of cross media communication has constructed additional identities to the company s corporate identity. In the second part, we will compare our findings to the concepts related to postmodern consumption. As stated previously, the aim of this thesis is to investigate how Burberry s use of cross media communication constructs additional identities to the company s corporate identity. After we have analysed Burberry both from a corporate identity and cross media communication perspective, we argue that the company in fact does not use cross media communication. However, the lack of cross media communication has also constructed a number of additional identities to Burberry s corporate identity. In relation to Burberry s corporate identity, our analysis revealed that the company has four different identities consistent with the CSPs outlined in its brand strategy: Burberry as a 157-year-old company, Burberry as a British company, Burberry as a company with a heritage as an outerwear and Burberry as a digital company. However, when analysing how these identities were expressed through Burberry s communication and behaviour, we managed to identify a number of additional identities that were not stated in the strategy. These were related to Burberry s continuous focus on quality and craftsmanship in the communication of its age and heritage as an outerwear brand and the fact that the company creates unique and digital customer experiences that signal openness, accessibility and innovation. Hence, we argued that Burberry s additional identities are: Burberry as a quality conscious company, Burberry as a company that treasures craftsmanship and Burberry as an open, accessible and innovative company. In relation to Burberry s use of cross media communication, our analysis revealed that the company in fact does not use cross media communication, but multiple media communication, which refers to repetition of the same content on various platforms. As argued previously, some of the most important features of cross media communication are interactivity and user participation. Hence, this interactive communication form allows participants to use direct or physical influence, not merely interpretative, on the form and content of the communication. 108

117 While Burberry, to some extend, manages to create content that is suitable for the different channels, the company neither creates a story that unfolds, interacts with its customers nor allows for user participation. In fact, Burberry uses the different social media platforms to practice one-way communication by choosing not to comment, share, like or answer questions posed by fans and followers, indicating that Burberry ignores the social features of social media. Moreover, our analysis illustrated that Burberry primarily creates productoriented posts, tweets and pins, which suggests that the company deliberately has chosen to prioritise the showcasing of products instead of developing interpersonal relationships with its fans and followers. Consequently, the lack of cross media communication and the way Burberry acts and behaves on the social media platforms result in the construction of additional identities. More specifically, Burberry s extensive use of the social media platforms as one-way communication channels and the fact that the company has no wish to interact with its fans and followers add to the construction of Burberry as a distanced, reserved and exclusive company. Moreover, Burberry s actions on the social media platforms, which are centred on products and sales instead of interaction and relationships, contribute to the construction of Burberry as a profit-oriented and extremely impersonal company. Hence, we argue that Burberry s behaviour on the various social media platforms constructs the following additional identities: Burberry as a distanced, reserved and exclusive company, Burberry a profit-oriented company and Burberry as an impersonal company. When comparing Burberry s corporate identities with the identities constructed through the use of cross media communication, it is evident that these differ significantly in terms of construction and positioning. The identities identified through our analysis of the A/W12 Main Campaign, 121 Regent Street, A/W13 Menswear Show and Art of the Trench are all positively loaded identities that are strategically communicated by Burberry in a persuasive and consistent manner. Additionally, they position Burberry as a British and quality conscious company that, despite its age, is very open and accessible because of its focus on innovative, digital experiences. In contrast, the additional identities found in our analysis of Burberry s use of cross media communication are expressions of the company s actions, not its communication. Hence, Burberry itself has not constructed and communicated these identities; instead, they have surfaced because of behaviour. 109

118 These are more negatively loaded identities, which position Burberry as a distanced, reserved, exclusive, profit-oriented and extremely impersonal company. Overall, our analysis of Burberry s corporate identity and use of cross media communication indicates that a company s communication and behaviour are equally important when it comes to the construction of identities. More specifically, both the way Burberry communicates, but certainly also the way it acts, plays a crucial role in its construction of identities. Conclusively, we argue that the use of cross media communication, or lack of it, in fact can construct additional identities to a company s corporate identity. Now that we have answered our problem statement and concluded that Burberry s use of cross media communication, or lack of it, does construct additional identities to the company s corporate identity, we will place the findings from our analysis in a greater context and discuss how they are viewed in relation to the concepts of postmodern consumption Findings in relation to postmodern consumption In this final part of our analysis, we discuss how Burberry s communication, behaviour and symbolism are related to the postmodern consumption concepts, that is, hyperreality, selfsymbolism, entertainment based experiences, co-creation and individualism/tribalism Hyperreality and self-symbolism As argued previously, hyperreality is a concept used to represent the power of simulation in determining reality. In the postmodern market, one of the major elements that enables hyperreality is the arbitrary relation between signifiers and the referents, which is exploited by creatively attaching any meaning to signifiers. Analysing Burberry s corporate identity, it is evident that the company also exploits this arbitrariness. For example, in the communication of the trench coat, Burberry continuously separates the trench coat from its original referent a piece of clothing to keep you warm and attaches new, symbolic meanings to it. In the A/W12 Main Campaign, the trench coat symbolises quality, exclusivity and luxury because of the close up shots of raindrops falling aesthetically on the fabric whereas, in the A/W13 Menswear Show, the trench coat symbolises high fashion and individuality due to Burberry s design and use of new fabrics, for example, animal print, rubber and fur. 110

119 Hence, depending on initiative and context, Burberry attaches a variety of positive symbolic meanings to the trench coat. Ultimately, the trench coat becomes a versatile visual communication tool that Burberry applies to communicate a number of desirable images. This matches the postmodern consumers who often perceive the image to be the essence of a product. Therefore, they do not consume products; instead, they consume the symbolic meaning of those products. The reason why postmodern consumers consume the symbolic meanings of products is related to the notion of self-symbolism. Fostered by the highly developed market place, postmodern consumers buy products with symbolic meanings in order to take commercial identities and make them important aspects of themselves and their surroundings. Consequently, we argue that Burberry s attachment of symbolic meanings to its products enables postmodern consumers to take on a range of desirable identities that signal the quality, luxury, exclusivity and individuality projected by Burberry. Finally, the online Burberry World, burberry.com, and the company s presence on various social media platforms represent different types of hyperreality. Since the postmodern consumers tend to prefer the hype or simulation to the real itself, we believe that Burberry s extensive focus on online environments and virtual realities matches the postmodern consumers and their desire to be a part of hyperreal worlds Entertainment based experiences and co-creation As stated previously, the postmodern consumers want hedonic experiences acquired through consumption; they want extraordinary and memorable experiences that are directed toward the pursuit of fantasies, feelings and fun. From this perspective, experiences are the value added of products and services. In relation to Burberry s communication and behaviour, we argue that the company truly manages to create a host of entertainment based digital experiences that appeal to the postmodern consumers. For example, consumers can live stream runway shows, buy the products directly from the runway and experience how burberry.com is brought to life in 121 Regent Street. However, postmodern consumers not only want to be part of entertainment based experiences; they also demand to interact with companies to co-create experiences. From this perspective, interaction and co-creation are the real value to consumers, not experiences. 111

120 While we argue that Burberry succeeds in creating entertainment based experiences, the company fails to interact with its customers. By not commenting, sharing, liking or giving any kind of feedback on posts from fans and followers, Burberry practices one-way communication and perceives customers as passive recipients. Consequently, we argue that Burberry s lack of focus on interaction and co-creation does not match the needs and wants of the postmodern consumers, as they are highly active and involved when it comes to consumption and the brands they buy and use Individualism/tribalism Postmodern consumption is characterised by both individualism and tribalism. While individualism encourages the postmodern consumers to take personal action and show their existence and differences, tribalism focuses on the social relationships that consumers can develop through consumption. In relation to Burberry, it is evident that the company s communication and behaviour primarily focus on appealing to the individualistic aspects of consumption. For example, by only allowing fans and followers to share content on own social media profiles and accounts, Burberry encourages the customers to express their own individual styles and identities to their surroundings. Consequently, Burberry allows for the postmodern consumers to express self-symbolism by communicating about the company s initiatives and products. Besides Burberry s presence on various social media platforms, we argue that the company does not purposefully attempt to promote tribalism. However, by choosing not to interact with its fans and followers, we argue that the company unintentionally fosters some kind of tribalism. In our analysis of Burberry s use of cross media communication, it was evident that Burberry s fans and followers would give feedback and answer questions posed by others because Burberry chose not to. We argue that Burberry s focus on individualism matches the postmodern consumer. However, we believe that the company needs to take a more proactive approach when it comes to tribalism in order to meet the postmodern consumers demand for the social link in consumption. Now that we have examined how the findings from our analysis are related to hyperreality, self-symbolism, entertainment based experiences, co-creation and individualism/tribalism, we will briefly discuss our identity findings. 112

121 Multiple identities In our analysis of Burberry s corporate identity and use of cross media communication, we have identified a number of contrasting identities. In relation to Burberry s corporate identity, the company has the following identities: Burberry as a 157-year-old company, Burberry as a British company, Burberry as a company with a heritage as an outerwear brand, Burberry as a digital company, Burberry as a quality conscious company, Burberry as a company that treasures craftsmanship and Burberry as an open, accessible and innovative company. However, in relation to the company s use of cross media communication, we have identified Burberry as a distant, reserved and exclusive company, Burberry as a profit-oriented company and Burberry as an impersonal company. We argue that multiple and conflicting identities are not necessarily viewed negatively in the eyes of the postmodern consumers, as they themselves also take on a wide variety of consumption based identities that change according to context and situation. Hence, the notion of multiple and contrasting identities is consistent with the postmodern consumer s multifaceted identities. Overall, we argue that the findings from our analysis match many of the concepts related to postmodern consumption. In relation to hyperreality and self-symbolism, Burberry s attachment of symbolic meanings to its products enables postmodern consumers to take on a range of desirable identities projected by the company. Moreover, Burberry s creation of digital entertainment based experiences matches the emotionally driven and experience focused postmodern consumer. However, the company fails to interact with its customers and co-create experiences. In relation to individualism and tribalism, we argue that Burberry s focus on individualism matches the postmodern consumer. However, we believe that the company needs to take a more proactive approach when it comes to tribalism and social-symbolism in order to meet the postmodern consumers demand for the social link in consumption. Finally, we argue that the contrasting and often conflicting identities identified in our analysis are not necessarily viewed negatively in the eyes of the postmodern consumers because they also have a tendency to take on a wide variety of identities that change according to context and situation. 113

122

123 PART 4 CONCLUSION This part consists of three main sections in which the first section includes our conclusion. In the second section, we reflect on our scientific stance, choice of theory, choice of method and findings. Moreover, we reflect on the quality of our study. This part ends with comments on future research areas, which could be interesting in relation to this thesis. 114

124 13. CONCLUSION The aim of this thesis has been to answer the following question: How does Burberry s use of cross media communication construct additional identities to the company s corporate identity? With point of departure in the theory of Common Starting Points (CSPs), we have analysed Burberry s brand strategy and managed to identify the following core values: the company s age, Britishness, heritage as an outerwear brand and its commitment to the digital. Our analysis of the A/W12 Main Campaign, 121 Regent Street, A/W13 Menswear Show and Art of the Trench has illustrated that Burberry, in consistency with these values, has four different corporate identities: Burberry as a 157-year-old company, Burberry as a British company, Burberry as company with a heritage as an outerwear brand and Burberry as a digital company. These identities are equally visible in all the different initiatives. Through our analysis of how these identities are expressed through Burberry s communication and behaviour, we have managed to identify a number of additional identities that are not stated in the strategy. These are related to Burberry s continuous focus on quality and craftsmanship in the communication of its age and heritage as an outerwear brand and the fact that the company creates unique and digital customer experiences that signal openness, accessibility and innovation. Hence, we have argued that Burberry s additional identities are: Burberry as a quality conscious company, Burberry as a company that treasures craftsmanship and Burberry as an open, accessible and innovative company. Overall, our analysis has showed that all these identities are expressed consistently through Burberry s communication, behaviour and symbolism. Our analysis of Burberry s A/W13 Menswear Show in terms of channel and suitability, storytelling, interactivity and user participation has revealed that the company in fact does not use cross media communication, but multiple media communication, which refers to repetition of the same content on various platforms. While Burberry, to some extend, manages to create content that is suitable for Facebook, Google+, Twitter, Pinterest and Instagram, the company neither creates a story that unfolds, interacts with its customers nor allows for user participation. In fact, our analysis has indicated that Burberry uses the different social media platforms to practice one-way communication by choosing not to comment, share, like or answer questions posed by fans and followers. 115

125 Moreover, our analysis has illustrated that Burberry primarily creates product-oriented posts, tweets and pins, which suggests that the company deliberately chooses to prioritise the showcasing of products instead of developing interpersonal relationships with fans and followers. Consequently, our analysis has revealed that the lack of cross media communication and the way Burberry acts and behaves on the social media platforms result in the construction of additional identities. More specifically, Burberry s extensive use of the social media platforms as one-way communication channels and the fact that the company has no wish to interact with its fans and followers add to the construction of Burberry as a distanced, reserved and exclusive company. Moreover, Burberry s actions on the social media platforms, which are centred on products and sales instead of interaction and relationships, contribute to the construction of Burberry as a profit-oriented and extremely impersonal company. Hence, our analysis has showed that Burberry s behaviour on the various social media platforms constructs the following additional identities: Burberry as a distanced, reserved and exclusive company, Burberry a profit-oriented company and Burberry as an impersonal company. When comparing Burberry s corporate identities with the identities constructed through the use of cross media communication, our analysis has illustrated that these differ significantly in terms of construction and positioning. The identities identified through our analysis of the A/W12 Main Campaign, 121 Regent Street, A/W13 Menswear Show and Art of the Trench are all positively loaded identities that are strategically communicated by Burberry in a persuasive and consistent manner. Additionally, they position Burberry as a British and quality conscious company that, despite its age, is very open and accessible because of its focus on innovative, digital experiences. In contrast, the additional identities identified in our analysis of Burberry s use of cross media communication are expressions of the company s actions, not its communication. Hence, Burberry itself has not constructed and communicated these identities; instead, they have surfaced because of behaviour. These are more negatively loaded identities, which position Burberry as a distanced, reserved, exclusive, profit-oriented and extremely impersonal company. 116

126 Overall, our analysis of Burberry s corporate identity and use of cross media communication has showed that a company s communication and behaviour are equally important when it comes to the construction of identities. More specifically, both the way Burberry communicates, but certainly also the way it acts, plays a crucial role in its construction of identities. Conclusively, we have argued that the use of cross media communication, or lack of it, in fact has constructed additional identities to Burberry s corporate identity. Finally, the findings from our analysis viewed in relation to hyperreality, self-symbolism, entertainment based experiences, co-creation and individualism/tribalism have illustrated that they match many of the concepts related to postmodern consumption. More specifically, our analysis has showed that Burberry attaches a number of symbolic meanings to its products, which enables the postmodern consumers to express self-symbolism and take on a range of desirable identities projected by the company. Moreover, Burberry creates digital entertainment based experiences that appeal to the emotionally driven and experience focused postmodern consumer. However, our analysis has revealed that Burberry fails to interact with its customers and co-create experiences, which does not match the needs and wants of the highly active and involved postmodern consumers. In relation to individualism and tribalism, our analysis has demonstrated that Burberry s focus on individualism matches the postmodern consumer because the company allows for them to express self-symbolism through social media. However, the company fails to foster tribalism and social-symbolism, which does not meet the postmodern consumers demand for a social link in consumption. Finally, our analysis has illustrated that Burberry s contrasting and often conflicting identities are not necessarily viewed negatively in the eyes of the postmodern consumers, as they also take on a wide variety of identities that change according to context and situation. 117

127 14. REFLECTIONS After the concluding remarks of this thesis, we find it relevant to reflect on our social constructionist stance, choice of theory, model of analysis, findings and quality of this study. In this thesis, we have worked from a social constructionist position. We have chosen this theory of science because it is consistent with postmodernism and our way of approaching the phenomenon of cross media communication. Additionally, it is in consonant with the assumptions we have regarding reality and knowledge production. In relation to postmodernism, our social constructionist stance is consistent with the concepts related to postmodern consumption. For example, interactivity, co-creation of experiences and tribalism are all concepts that match the interaction, which constitutes the cornerstone of social constructionism. Moreover, with reference to cross media communication, our social constructionist position is in congruence with the way we understand the concept. More specifically, cross media communication works with the notion of interpretative, highly active and participatory produsers, not passive recipients. Hence, cross media communication applies an ontology consistent with our social constructionist stance. Vis-à-vis identity, we are aware that our choice to analyse Burberry s corporate identity conflicts with the social constructionist belief that identity is solely constructed through interaction. By choosing to analyse corporate identity, which focuses on outward selfpresentation to surroundings, we acknowledge that a company also plays an active part in the construction of its identity. In retrospect, we believe that a different scientific position could have provided us with a different, but equally meaningful understanding of corporate identity. For example, by applying hermeneutics, we would have gained a thorough understanding of Burberry s intentions, emotions and thoughts in relation to the construction of its corporate identity. However, despite our recognition of other scientific frameworks, we still argue that social constructionism is the most suitable for our thesis, as we believe that a company, in the end, cannot control perceptions and interpretations of individuals. Hence, regardless of corporate strategies and communication, a company s identity is always constructed in the minds of consumers. 118

128 Regarding our choice of theory, we find it relevant to comment on the theories related to the interpretative perspective, as they view identity as a socially constructed phenomenon and focus on how employees construct meanings regarding who they are within the organisation. Hence, they operate within the field of organisational identity. However, we still find these theories relevant in relation to our focus on corporate identity because they allow for companies to have multiple identities. This emphasis on multiplicity is also consistent with the notion of the postmodern consumers consumption of products with symbolic meanings to construct multiple identities. With reference to our method, we reflect on the choices made in relation to the development of our own model of analysis. We do realise that the inclusion of the identity and cross media communication theories we found relevant has affected the outcome of this thesis. Correspondingly, we are also aware that we could have included a number of other theories, which would have led to another outcome. For example, if we had chosen to work with identity theories that view identity as a single, coherent and fixed phenomenon or focus on cross media communication theories that emphasise content and not use, our research findings and conclusion would be radically different. Additionally, if we had applied an alternative method and chosen to focus on interviews in order to analyse Burberry s corporate identity and how the company s use of cross media communication constructs identities, the results would also have led to a different outcome. Hence, we are fully aware that our choices have guided and influenced the results we have searched for and reached. In relation to the findings from our thesis, we find it relevant to critically evaluate if cross media communication, which takes its point of departure in the entertainment industry, is suitable for an exclusive and luxurious fashion brand. In our cross media communication framework, we emphasise the importance of interaction and user participation. Hence, this type of communication allows for participants to use direct or physical influence, not merely interpretative, on the form and content of the communication. From this perspective, it is questionable if Burberry in fact should use cross media communication because the empowerment of consumers to moderate or create content on Burberry s official communication platforms could be potentially damaging for the brand. For example, if consumers that are not cool by association were allowed to upload images wearing Burberry or Burberry replica, the exclusivity and attractiveness of the brand could disappear. 119

129 Taking the consumption practices related to postmodernism into consideration, this would be a tragedy for Burberry, as postmodern consumers consume the symbolic meanings of products to create attractive self-images. The final reflection is related to the quality of our study and how readers of our research should regard the outcome of this thesis. As we work from a social constructionist position, we are aware that we have been co-constructors of the field that we have studied. In the process of examining how Burberry s use of cross media communication constructs additional identities to the company s corporate identity, we as researchers, have participated in meaning creation because we analyse from our own historical and cultural specific positions. Consequently, we are aware that the findings from our thesis cannot be regarded as truth or facts, nor does our research aim at such results. 120

130 15. FUTURE RESEARCH Our study is limited to investigate how Burberry s use of cross media communication constructs additional identities to the company s corporate identity. Future studies should explore the relationship between corporate identity and cross media communication in order to expand the theoretical knowledge of both fields and their interdependency. Moreover, researchers should investigate if and how consumers perceptions of a luxury brand change along with increased cross media communication interactivity and user participation. Evidently, this would give an indication of the suitability of cross media communication in relation to commercial and exclusive luxury companies. Furthermore, it would be interesting to examine if and how cross media communication can be applied to build strong commercial brands. In this connection, researches should also study if and how the status of a brand affects the overall effectiveness of cross media communication. 121

131 16. LIST OF RESPONSIBILITY Our thesis is a product of a close collaboration between us and we have both contributed equally to all of its parts. Therefore, we find it very difficult to put a name on each of the sections. However, in order to meet the examination rules, we have developed a list in which the main responsible for each section is marked. 122

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137 Appendix 1: Burberry s annual report 2011/2012 (

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140 Appendix 2: Interview with Angela Ahrendts by Capgemini Consulting ( )

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154 Videos: A/W12 Main Campaign

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158 Appendix 4: A/W12 Main Campaign: shoppable features

159 Appendix 5: A/W13 Menswear Show: a grand image of London City and Milan Appendix 6: A/W13 Menswear Show: buy directly from the runway

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161 Appendix 7: Art of the Trench

162 Appendix 8: Social media overview Facebook is a social networking service launched in February 2004, owned and operated by Facebook, Inc. As of September 2012, Facebook has over one billion active users that like and comment an average of 3.2 billion times a day. Users must register before using the site, after which they may create a personal profile, add other users as friends, and exchange messages, including automatic notifications when they update their profile. Additionally, users may join common-interest user groups, organized by workplace, school or college, or other characteristics, and categorize their friends. Communication recommendations to companies from Facebook: Engage Your Audience When you post content and have conversations on your Page, you re building loyalty and creating opportunities to generate sales. Post quality content regularly When people like your Page, they re saying that they care about your business and want to know what s going on. Posting relevant content is the most important thing you can do to keep them interested. How to write quality posts - Make sure your posts are relevant to your audience and business - Be succinct, friendly and conversational - Share photos and videos because they tend to be more engaging - Ask questions or seek input - Give access to exclusive information and specials - Be timely by posting about current events, holidays or news Best Practice Post at least 1 to 2 times per week so you stay top-of-mind and relevant to the people who like your Page. Influence Friends of Fans When people interact with your Page, their friends can see it in their News Feed as a story. Expand your audience by promoting stories about people engaging with your Page. Encourage people to interact with your business Word of mouth is the strongest form of advertising. When someone interacts with your business on Facebook it creates a story. People can see when their friends endorse your

163 business by liking your Page or connecting with it, and it can influence their own purchasing decisions. Encourage people to check in at your business with a sign in your shop, or by offering a special discount to people who check in. Create events on your Page and invite people to join them - Ask questions and create posts that encourage engagement - Share exclusive information and offers that people are likely to want to pass along to their friends

164 Google+ is a multilingual social networking and identity service owned and operated by Google Inc. It was launched on June 28, As of December 2012, it has a total of 500 million registered users of whom 235 million are active on a monthly basis. Unlike other conventional social networks which are generally accessed through a single website, Google has described Google+ as a "social layer" consisting of not just a single site, but rather an overarching "layer" which covers many of its online properties. Communication recommendations to companies from Google+: ( - Use pictures and video. Pictures and video work incredibly well on Google+. People are far more interested in sharing images then straight text posts. - Share information to entertain and interest your audience what people really want is more of YOU and your interests. - Post several times a day to ensure that you reach followers around the world in different time zones. - Interact with your followers - Comment on your shares, respond to other people s comments building up trust is what social networking is all about.

165 Twitter is an online social networking service and microblogging service that enables its users to send and read text-based messages of up to 140 characters, known as "tweets". As of 2012, Twitter has over 500 million registered users, generating over 340 million tweets daily and handling over 1.6 billion search queries per day. Since its launch, Twitter has become one of the ten most visited websites on the Internet, and has been described as "the SMS of the Internet." Unregistered users can read tweets, while registered users can post tweets through the website interface, SMS, or a range of apps for mobile devices. Recommended communication on Twitter: ( The market-research firm Pear Analytics analysed 2,000 tweets (originating from the US and in English) over a two-week period in August 2009 and separated them into six categories: - Social grooming and/or peripheral awareness 40% - Conversational 38% - Pass-along value 9% - Self-promotion 6% - Spam 4% - News 4% In relation to social grooming or peripheral awareness, social networking researcher Danah Boyd argues that people want to know what the people around them are thinking and doing and feeling, even when co-presence isn t viable

166 Pinterest is a pinboard-style photo sharing website that allows users to create and manage theme-based image collections such as events, interests, hobbies, and more. Users can browse other pinboards for inspiration, 're-pin' images to their own pinboards, or 'like' photos. The site was founded by Ben Silbermann, Paul Sciarra, and Evan Sharp and is today managed by Cold Brew Labs. Communication recommendations to companies from Pinterest: Make it personal Pinterest isn t just a place for showcasing what you sell it s a place to show people what inspires you. Use your boards to express your style, share your hobbies or link to things you personally love. Create inspiring boards The very best boards are inspiring, with beautiful images that draw people in, and about a particular topic. Share your values What do you or your business care about? If you re someone who cares deeply about sustainability, you might create boards that relate to gardening, DIY projects or volunteer work. Show how you re different Pinners appreciate authenticity, so don t be afraid to show the real you. Are you a museum with a rare art collection or a company with a really unique culture? Make a board for it! Get creative with pins A pin can speak a thousand words. Write thoughtful descriptions Your descriptions add color to your pins. You might want to include keywords so people can find your pin in search, or you may just want to expand on your pin. Ask questions Want to see what people are thinking or get feedback on a pin? Ask! Make products discoverable Use the Pin It button on product page to help people share and remember things they love. Link to a useful web page Help people take action on your pins. When you pin something, be sure that it links to a useful web page.

167 Send Traffic Your Way Get the Pin It button, and make it easy for people to share your stuff on Pinterest and find their way back to your website or blog.

168 Instagram is an online photo-sharing and social networking service that enables its users to take pictures, apply digital filters to it, and share them on a variety of social networking services, such as media sites including Facebook or Twitter. A distinctive feature is that it confines photos to a square shape, similar to Kodak Instamatic and Polaroid images, in contrast to the 4:3 aspect ratio typically used by mobile device cameras. As of January 2013, Instagram has over 100 million registered users and around 90 million monthly active users. Communication recommendations to companies from Pinterest: ( Share unique, behind-the-scenes content that not only gives your audience a good reason to want to follow you there, but also helps you solidify a personal relationship and build loyalty with your customers new and old. Instagram is a perfect place to get even more personal with your biggest fans. - Inspire creativity and capture everyday moments through the lens of a mobile phone - Focus on building a mobile-only experience - See and take photos on-the-go

169 Appendix 9: A/W13 Menswear Show on website

170 Appendix 10: A/W13 Menswear Show on Facebook

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