Ancient Monuments Laboratory Report 112/97

Transcription

1 Ancient Monuments Laboratory Report 112/97 TECHNOLOGICAL STUDY OF THE NON-FERROUS ARTEFACTS FROM BOSS HALL AND BUTTERMARKET (ST. STEPHEN'S LANE) ANGLO SAXON CEMETERIES, IPSWICH, SUFFOLK C Mortimer A Draper Opinions expressed in AML reports are those of the author and are not necessarily those of English Heritage (Historic Buildings and Monuments Commission for England).

2 Ancient Monuments Laboratory Report 112/97 TECHNOLOGICAL STUDY OF THE NON FERROUS ARTEFACTS FROM BOSS HALL AND BUTTERMARKET (ST. STEPHEN'S LANE) ANGLO-SAXON CEMETERIES, IPSWICH, SUFFOLK C Mortimer A Draper Summary Chemical analysis showed that copper alloy artefacts from Boss Hall (mainly sixth century) and Buttermarket (seventh century) were comparable in composition to other early Anglo-Saxon artefacts. There was no evidence of a change in metal supply or use in the seventh century. Even pieces from a belt set thought to be imported had comparable compositions. Two silver bracelets were made of an unusually high purity silver-copper alloy. The copper alloy artefacts were constlucted using a range of techniques, including casting, gilding, tinning (by the wipe method) and silvering (by soldering on thin silver plates). More unusually, a fine standard of repair or replacement was discovered on one brooch, and some curious drilled features on the reverse of another. The silver bracelets were made by a complex series of procedures, including forming round a rounded-w shaped former and shaping beaded wire. Nine types of punclunarks were used on the copper alloy artefacts and three on the silver bracelets, and these were investigated using optical and electron microscopy. The punchmarks were of similar folids to those seen on other early Anglo-Saxon artefacts, although rather faint in the case of many of the copper-alloy artefacts. A large doublering-and-dot mark was probably made by 'turning' rather than by striking with a punch. On the silver bracelets, various distinctive features in the marks ret1ected t1aws in the punches used, and this allows a degree of characterisation. This mark was completely different to those on a similar artefact from another Suffolk cemetery. Authors' addresses :- Dr C Mortimer 16 Norfolk Street York Y02 UY Miss A Draper ENGLISH HERITAGE 23 Savile Row London W1X lab Historic Buildings and Monuments Commission for England

3 Technological study of the non-ferrous artefacts from Boss Hall and Buttermarket (St Stephen's Lane) Anglo-Saxon cemeteries, Ipswich, Suffolk Catherine Mortimer and Alison Draper Introduction When the non-ferrous artefacts at Boss Hall and Buttermarket were assessed for their potential for technological research (Mortimer 1994a), it was suggested that the composition, construction and applied decoration of the artefacts could be researched. Compositional patterning within and between the sites and within single contexts (graves) reflects the availability of different alloys and the working practices (eg selectivity) of the metalworkers. This information can be compared with the typological data (eg whether the objects are thought to be imported, the artefact dating) and with data recovered from other analytical work (eg on organic remains). Technical analysis of the construction and applied decoration of the artefacts demonstrates the range of metalworking skills used, and again may have chronological or cultural aspects. In particular, the silver bracelets from Boss Hall Grave 313 provide a useful opportunity to study variability in punchmarking, an important consideration in the development of punchmark studies. Copper alloy Composition. Introduction. A number of analytical projects have been carried out on early and middle Anglo-Saxon copper alloys in recent years (Appendix 1). These projects used a variety of techniques, including non-destructive (surface) analysis, which means that it is difficult to compare the datasets. However, some preliminary suggestions about alloy supply and use over the period have been put forward on the basis of the available data and the Boss Hall and Buttermarket material can be investigated in the light of these suggestions. Amongst the fully-quantitative analytical programmes, a recent study by Blades (1995) included analysis of 380 artefacts from six early Anglo-Saxon cemetery sites but more significantly, the first large-scale analysis of copper-alloy artefacts (151 in total) from a middle Anglo-Saxon site, Brandon (Suffolk). His analysis of cast early Anglo-Saxon artefacts confirmed the patterning already observed for cruciform brooches (Mortimer 1990), that bronzes with small amounts of zinc and mixed alloys (containing zinc, tin and lead) were the most common alloy types. In addition, Blades confirmed that alloy selection was not very prevalent during the early Anglo-Saxon period, ie that the alloys which were worked after casting (wrought/sheet/wire) were broadly the same sort of alloys as those used for casting. His suggestion that rather more zinc-rich alloys may have been used for wrought objects should be treated with caution, because of two factors. The first of these is the small size of his sample population - Blades' 26 wrought samples included only six high-zinc (more than 10% Zn) brasses, three used for tweezers from Spong Hill and three for wrist clasps 1

4 (including a pair) at Empingham (Blades 1995, 151). Secondly, there is likely to be a range of dates of manufacture for artefacts within Blades' 'early Anglo-Saxon' phase. This could be critical, since, at least for one artefact type (the cruciform brooch), fifth century examples are more frequently made of pure brasses than sixth century examples (Mortimer 1990; Mortimer 1994b). Hence as it could be suggested that at least some of the wrought objects from Spong Hill analysed by Blades might be amongst the early (fifth century) material at the site, they are therefore as likely to be brass-like due to their date, rather than because of their method of manufacture. The Empingham material is more likely to be sixth century, although there are some probable fifth-century contexts at the site (Timby 1996). Broadly similar alloy patterns had been found previously in site-based surveys, for instance, using quantitative XRF at Watchfield, Oxfordshire and Lechlade, Gloucestershire (Mortimer 1993b; 1988) and qualitative XRF surveys at Morning Thorpe, Norfolk (Wilthew 1985), although a zinc-rich bias amongst wrought objects was only discerned at Lechlade. These datasets are also open to re-evaluation with respect to chronological sub-divisions of the early Anglo-Saxon period. Purer bronzes and brasses, with few mixed alloys, were used at the eighth to ninth century settlement site at Brandon (Blades 1995, 152-6). From this evidence, Blades concluded that more fresh metal was available during the middle Saxon period than the early Anglo-Saxon period and that there was less recycling as a result. Clearly data from a single site is not necessarily typical of the period as a whole and the results of a qualitative XRF survey from the middle Saxon sites at Hamwih (Wilthew 1996) indicated a different balance of alloy types, with fewer bronzes and brasses used but more leaded bronzes being used (Table I). The differences observed between Brandon and Hamwih may partly be due to the different analytical techniques used and to different alloy classifications, but the general impressions given about alloy preferences should be accurate. The character and location of the deposition site are amongst the other factors which might be significant in affecting alloy use. Further analysis of seventh to ninth century material would allow a better understanding of the situation, and analysis of the seventh-century material from Buttermarket allows us to look for evidence from the earliest part of this suggested period of change in copper-alloy usage. By analysing the Boss Hall material as well, the compositions of artefacts from the seventh-century inhumation cemetery can be compared with those from a nearby sixth-century site. The situation at Buttermarket is somewhat complicated by the fact that some of the copper-alloy artefacts are thought to be imported types. Sample selection and analysis: Comparable compositional datasets are dominated by small cast artefacts, because this type of artefact is a common grave good, and is often more durable and easier to sample. Therefore it is quite appropriate that cast artefacts from Boss Hall and Buttermarket were sampled for quantitative analysis. 29 samples were drilled from the artefacts, mounted in epoxy resin and polished to lit. Analysis was carried out using energy-dispersive X-ray analysis (EDX) in a scanning electron microscope (SEM). The concentrations of major and minor elements were determined (Table 2). Four copper alloy standards were analysed by the same method (Table 3), showing that the default ZAF calibration slightly over-estimated the tin contents and under-estimated the lead contents. Uncorrected values are used in the discussion below. Analysis of the standards also illustrates the EDX has a tendency to calculate that nickel, arsenic, silver and tin are present, at very low levels (0.1 %), in samples where there should be none. This is probably due to miscalculation of the amount by which the relevant X-ray 2

5 peaks overlap. Hence 0.2 % was used as the detection limits for these elements. At least three separate drillings were analysed for each sample, thus giving a better idea of homogeneity; some samples were very heterogeneous (see Table 4), with variable lead and tin contents and these are noted in Table 2. Results: Analysis showed that the compositions of the copper alloys used at both sites lie in a continuum (Figure la), stretching from zinc-rich, tin-poor alloys (brasses) to tin-rich, zincpoor alloys (bronzes), with a concentration of datapoints in an area corresponding to bronzes with significant zinc content (c. 6-10% Sn and l-4%zn). Few of the samples are either pure bronzes, with low zinc contents or pure brasses with low tin contents - three high-purity bronzes came from the same grave (context 3871), two of which come from the same buckle, sf All of the samples contained detectable lead, ranging from 0.2% to 10.7%, with the majority in the range from 0.2 % to c.3 %. The higher lead contents are found amongst the bronzes. Pairs or sets of artefacts do not have compositions which are identical or even exceptionally similar. However, it is noticeable on Figure la that the datapoints for sets of items from Buttermarket graves are closer together than the datapoints from items from Boss Hall graves; the same cannot be said for the lead vs tin plot for the same artefacts (Figure lb). Discussion. There is very little difference between the types of alloys used at each site, with the exception that all the zinc-rich alloys were found at Boss Hall (5 samples have more than 5 % zinc). The overall pattern of alloy types at both sites is therefore not dissimilar to the situation observed in fifth- to sixth-century material from other sites. The buckle set from context 1306 is typologically the latest from Buttermarket and has been suggested to have continental origins. However, this is made of a leaded bronze with % zinc, and thus fits in well, compositionally, with the rest of the material from the site. If the belt set is indeed imported, this suggests that the alloys used on the continent at this time were similar to those available in England. The small amount of available analytical data on continental material confirms that this is likely. A small number of analyses of sixth- and seventh-century French artefacts (unpublished analyses of material from the Ashmolean Museum and Rouen Museum) suggest that although some high zinc brasses were available, many more of the alloys analysed were bronzes and mixed alloys similar to those seen in the Ipswich material. Similarly, fifth- and sixth-century cruciform brooches from Frisia include a higher proportion of zinc-rich copper alloys than the English examples (Mortimer 1990), but also some bronzes and mixed alloys. It should be noted however, that a buckle from grave 74, Boss Hall (35CU) was not sampled in this study and this appears to be a high-tin bronze, as often found in Frankish artefacts. Certainly, the analyses of the Buttermarket material do not provide any evidence for fresh supplies of new metal being in circulation and the compositions of the Buttermarket artefacts are in contrast with the results from Brandon. These results may reflect the dating of the Buttermarket material to the seventh century, rather than the eighth and ninth centuries, suggesting that metal supplies of this date were comparable to those in the Migration period and that the supply system which caused such a definite change in alloy use/availability did not come into action until the eighth century. Further analysis of seventh- to ninth-century material would be advantageous. 3

6 Silver Introduction Relatively few silver artefacts from the early and middle Anglo-Saxon periods have been analysed quantitatively and the availability of the Boss Hall bracelets was an unusual opportunity to carry out a small study. Analysis and results. A small sample was clipped from a broken edge of bracelet 5AG, then mounted and analysed using the same methods as for the copper alloys. The other bracelet, 4AG, was too well-preserved to be sampled. The silver used for the silver bracelet is a silver-copper alloy with only about 4-5 % copper. Other elements were not detectable by EDX, so that the lead, gold and zinc concentrations in the alloy are likely to be less than O. I %. The silver was thus alloyed with pure copper, rather than a copper alloy. The cross-section showed that there was a 40-60/t thick layer of chlorine-rich corrosion products surrounding the solid core of the sample, with traces of a very thin silver-rich layer visible at the surface. This illustrates the redeposition of silver which gives the artefact a silver-rich appearance despite the corrosion which has taken place. Discussion. As was noted above, very few Anglo-Saxon silver-alloy artefacts have been analysed quantitatively, so there is little with which to compare the compositions of the silver objects from Boss Hall. There are some surface XRF analyses, but the compositions of corroded silver surfaces often have little correspondence to the interior composition - instead the outside surface may be misleadingly rich in silver; the results of analysing silver alloyed with zinc-containing copper alloys (ie brasses) are particularly unreliable (see notes above on chlorine-rich corrosion products; also Leigh et at 1984, 35-38; Mortimer 1986). However, it is useful to compare the composition of 5AG with those of two sixth-century square-headed brooches from Suffolk (analysed using drilled samples), which proved to be a very poor-quality silver, alloyed with a copper alloy containing zinc, tin and lead (Brownsword and Hines 1993, Table 1). The alloys of many of the Kentish silver squareheaded brooches analysed by Leigh et at (1984) seem similarly debased, as far as the surface analyses permit comparison. There are few parallel datasets abroad, although silver Ostrogothic brooches are known to be heavily debased (Riederer 1975). Such alloys are thought to represent the 'stretching' of available silver supplies by remelting silver artefacts and adding whatever copper-rich alloys were available locally. Alloying silver with copper or copper alloys meant that the silver went further, often without a perceptible visible difference, and also gave a more useful alloy (pure silver is rather soft). The silver used by the Anglo-Saxons could have originated from recycled Roman artefacts, either those which were stili in circulation or those which had been reused once already in the manufacture of Germanic artefacts. The alloy used to make the Boss Hall bracelet is closely comparable with the compositions of late Roman fine wares, which often contained 94% - 98% silver and rarely contained more than traces of any other metals except copper and gold (Hughes and Hall 1979). If the bracelets were made by remelting such artefacts, then it is clear that the metalworkers did not attempt to bulk up the melt by adding further copper alloys. Some other silver artefacts from Boss Hall were analysed previously (Hook et at 1993). The results of surface XRF analysis indicated that these are very silver-rich but, given the problems of corrosion noted above and the presence of small amounts of tin and/or 4

7 zinc, the results may be misleading. At the very least the results indicate that these artefacts were made of a variety of different silver alloys, including silver alloyed with copper alloys, rather than with copper. Only destructive analysis would confirm the precise compositions and many of the samples are so thin that there is no metallic core left in them to analyse. XRF also determined that the silver sheet applied to the swastika stud from Grave 74, Boss Hall was also alloyed with a copper alloy, not pure copper (see below). Conclnsion The Boss Hall bracelets may have been made by recycling Roman artefacts, but it is interesting that the silver was alloyed with pure copper, not a copper alloy. If analysis of further artefacts of this type indicates that this is a general pattern, it may suggest that the bracelets came from a different cultural background or were seen as having a higher status than the contemporary square-headed brooches, meriting a finer silver. Copper alloy Construction The methods of manufacture can be reconstructed based on observations on the artefacts and from work on comparable material from elsewhere. The majority of copper alloy artefacts from both sites are cast with minimal working subsequently. Casting would have been carried out using clay piece moulds (eg Jones 1975), formed around models which were made either of organic materials or of lead (Mortimer 1994c). After casting, the artefact would be cleaned up, eg to remove casting flash. Silvering, tinning, gilding and punch marking would then be carried out, where appropriate. Some pieces had additional features which required further work, eg adding pins to brooches and bending over catches. All of the methods of construction used to make the Boss Hall and Buttermarket artefacts are known from other artefacts but some are relatively rare. A number of artefacts from Buttermarket have silvery-white metallic areas on them, notably items from the 'continental' belt set in context 1306, Buttermarket. XRF analyses showed that these areas are not silver-rich. Instead, it seems that the areas may be slightly tin-rich although it is often difficult to interpret the XRF spectra since they relate to corroded and contaminated layers on the surface. Also, none of the white metal areas is very large, making it difficult to ensure XRF analysis was carried out only on the silvery-white areas. Tin-enriched areas may be due to a number of processes, as summarised by Meeks (1993). The surfaces may have been tinned deliberately, most probably by wipe tinning; in this process, molten tin is wiped over the surface of the bronze, then the surface is polished. Tin-rich surfaces could also have resulted during casting, whether accidentally or deliberately; this is because low-tin bronzes have a wide freezing range, causing the tin-rich phases to be squeezed to the surface ('tin sweat'). Archaeological artefacts made of high-tin bronze also have higher levels of tin at the surface than in the bulk of the object since, even though the metal may be uniform on casting, during burial, the more copper-rich phases (and lead globules) are corroded preferentially, leaving the tin-rich phases. Finally, in some burial conditions, the corrosion of tin bronze can result in the formation of tin oxide at the surface and copper may be leached away during burial, whilst the tin oxide remains, because it is very insoluble and stable. Optical microscopy and SEM-EDX analysis were used to try to determine which of these processes were concerned in the formation of the silvery-white areas on the items from 5

8 Buttermarket. The most clear example is on a small belt fitting from context 1306, l718c. The base metal itself is a lightly-leaded gunmetal (Table 2), but high-magnification examination in the SEM showed that the object has a distinct, coherent upper layer, which is frequently disturbed by eruptions of corrosion products from the underlying layers. The top layer was found by EDX analysis to be about 50% tin (remainder copper) with very little lead detected, whereas the underlying, heavily corroded base metal was about 20% tin, 30% lead (remainder copper). The structure and compositions seen on this artefact most closely resemble those of artefacts tinned by the wipe tinning method (Meeks 1993). Hence the silvery-white surfaces are more likely to be deliberately tin-enhanced, than accidentally tinenhanced. Although tinning is not particularly rare amongst early Anglo-Saxon artefacts, in most cases the tinning is much thinner than on this particular belt set. A buckle from grave 74, Boss Hall (35CU) has the silvery-white appearance of the high-tin bronze used for making Frankish buckle sets during the sixth and seventh centuries (Salin 1957) and found in many areas of this country eg Norton, Cleveland (Sherlock and Welch 1992) and Watchfield (Mortimer 1993b). Such alloys are very hard, and difficult to sample for analysis; furthermore, a section through such alloys would most probably show that the tin content decreased with distance from the surface, making it difficult to calculate an accurate 'average' value for drillings. Surface XRF confirms that this item is very tinrich, but its tongue does not have elevated levels of tin, instead silver was detected. The possibility that this piece is a replacement part should be investigated. Silver, alloyed with a copper alloy, was used to make the sheet of metal attached (probably soldered) onto the front of a swastika-shaped stud (52CU) also from grave 74. Besides silver and copper, gold, zinc, lead and tin were detected in the silver sheet. Similar silver sheets are occasionally attached to other artefacts of this period, for example, the terminals and other areas of late, florid cruciform brooches, where it contrasted with the golden colour of the copper alloy substrate or of gilding (eg Mortimer 1996). True silvering, where the silver itself is chemically bonded to the substrate (eg by mercury silvering; La Niece 1993), is rarely found in the early Anglo-Saxon period, and soldering on silver-rich sheets was a simple if rather crude way of achieving a silver surface on an artefact. Another stud from grave 74 (51CU) was visually identified as having an area of possible tinning/silvering, but neither tin nor silver could be detected using XRF; results of analysis on possible tinned/silvered surfaces of two items from grave 32, Boss Hall (licu and l2cu) were similarly inconclusive. White metal surfaces were also seen on a disc brooch from Boss Hall grave 97 (3l-2CU) but because the base metal itself is tin-rich (Table 2), it was difficult to determine whether the white metal areas were even more tin-rich using XRF. Gilding was used to decorate the surfaces of the cruciform brooch from grave 301, Boss Hall (Mortimer 1993a) and a highly-decorated disc brooch from grave 97 (3l-2CU). XRF analysis of these items confirms that they were mercury-gilt, presumably carried out by spreading an amalgam of gold and mercury over a cleaned copper-alloy surface and heating to drive off the mercury (cj Oddy 1980). Without cutting cross-sections, it is not possible to find out how thick these layers are but, from parallels (eg Mortimer and Anheuser 1996), they could be as thin as 2-10/-t, thus minimizing the amount of gold and mercury consumed. XRF showed that the disc brooch from grave 97 was originally gilded throughout the top surface, including over the central reserve, which now appears to be ungilded. The burial environment was sufficiently agressive to effectively etch the metal of this artefact and the dendritic (cast) structure of the metal can be seen in the central area. A number of more unusual construction details have been observed amongst the 6

9 material at Boss Hall. The cruciform brooch from grave 301 (50CU) was probably originally miscast, but replacements were carried out in the catch, sideknob and pin lug areas (Mortimer 1993a). The good quality suggests that this work was a replacement carried out by the jeweller rather than a repair carried out subsequently, as these are often very poorly executed. Conical holes were drilled into the back of all three knobs on a cruciform brooch from grave 150 (23CU), for unknown purposes (the concentric lines left by the drilling can be seen in Figure 2; the methodology of examination is detailed below in the section on punchmarks). On the same brooch, a small hole was made at the end of the foot, possibly with a view to mending the brooch, where it is broken (all of the lower half of the animal head is missing), although there is no clear evidence for the nature of this mend. Silver Examination was concentrated on the two silver bracelets from Grave 313 (4AG and 5AG). Making silver sheet The sheet used to form the bracelets was probably beaten out from a thicker bar or ingot with additional working to give the wider areas where the decorative terminals were to be made. The plain areas of the bracelets are about mm thick, whereas the decorated areas are mm thick. The thickness of the decorated areas was measured on broken parts of 4AG, since the edges of the terminals are almost as thick ( mm) as those of the undecorated areas. Formiug the curved shapes The bracelets' unusual' rounded-w' profile was most probably created using a former, probably made out of wood. However, the edges of the terminals are wavy and irregular, with some cracking, suggesting that the silver was not heated enough or beaten to take the shape perfectly. Alternatively these features might be due to a later phase of working, when the bracelets were bent into a spiral. The wooden former might have been kept in place during the punch marking, as it would make a good backing for this work. The plain areas between the terminals would have been given their final curved shape only after all the punch marks had been done. Beaded wire The beaded wire would have been attached to the bracelets last. The wire is of a simple beaded form (c/whitfield 1987). This can be contrasted with the block-twisted wire used on the composite brooch from Grave 93 (Hook et a/1993). The beading achieved was rather variable. The profile of each 'bead' was lopsided, with one face more curved than the other (Figure 3). In many cases, the two sides of the bead meet imperfectly at the top of the bead, leaving a medial furrow. The spacing of the beads is also errratic. The beaded wire was attached by puncturing two holes in the sheet metal, threading the wire through and turning the ends over. The holes were not tidied up, leaving raw edges. The ends of the wire were turned over with an implement that left a flattened surface on the upper sides. Punchmarks Few Anglo-Saxon metalworking tools survive and, as they are mostly ferrous, corrosion has removed most of the areas of interest. However, methods of punch manufacture can be investigated indirectly by studying punch marks. Where punchmarks are well-preserved, they 7

10 can be characterised and then compared with other examples. If the same tool was used in more than one case, this would indicate that the artefacts were the product of a single metalworker or workshop. A study of the style of punchmark layout may also provide information to help characterise the output of a particular metalworker/workshop or of a particular cultural group. Initial examination by low-powered microscopy was sufficient to work out the layout of the decorative schemes. Further study of the punch marks was achieved by using silicone rubber peels which were taken from several areas. Examination of peels rather than of the object itself reduces the risk of damage to the artefact and increases flexibility in viewing. Peels are negative representations of the punch marks, but positives of shape of the punch tip itself. The peels were mounted and gold-coated for examination in a scanning electron microscope (SEM). An SEM has good depth of focus, does not suffer from misleading information caused by glare or by patchy corrosion products and has more than one method of imaging the punch marks. In this case, the backscattered electron (BSE) detector was used in topographic settings which effectively 'light' the marks from one angle. Two complementary topographic BSE settings can be used - in this project, a setting which 'illuminates' the top left side most strongly was normally used, occasionally another which 'illuminates' from the top right was also used. Secondary electron (SE) microscopy was also used, especially where the sample was to be tilted; this method was also used in the examination of impressions taken from holes on the back of the cruciform brooch 32CU from Grave 150, Boss Hall (see above). Marks were characterised by measurement and by description (for a detailed description of the methodology, see Mortimer and Stoney 1996). Individual punch marks are referred to by their SEM stub number and mark letter (eg 86d), where necessary. The punchmark designs observed at Boss Hall and Buttermaket are all classifiable within the manufacture-related punch mark typology which has recently been proposed (Mortimer and Stoney 1996, 6-8), where Group a forms are solid geometric, Group b forms are solid, but adapted from geometric, Group c forms have punched additions, Group d forms have filed/engraved internal grooves and Group e forms (not found at Boss Hall or Buttermarket) have both punched and filed additions (Figure 4). Copper alloy Seven copper-alloy artefacts from Boss Hall and one from Buttermarket have decorative punch marks on them (Table 5). Many of the punchmarks are poorly preserved, due to wear or corrosion on the artefacts. The marks are of nine types (Figure 5); triangular, semicircular or C-shaped (two examples), double semi-circular or double C, C-shaped with a solid semi-circle inside, ring, double ring, Y-shaped (?), double V(?) and paired lines; the double ring and dot decoration on the girdle hanger from Boss Hall G301 (42CU) was probably not made using a punch (see notes below). Buttermarket provides the only example of a Group a punch mark - the triangular mark used on a strap end from context 1306, 9106C (Figure 15). There is also only one example amongst the collection which may be a Group b punch mark. This is the probable Y -shaped mark on the cruciform brooch from Boss Hall Gl50 (25CU). The images of impressions mainly show the central triangular portion of the mark (Figure 7) - when looking at marks on the object itself, the eye can be more easily convinced that the shape is truly a 'Y' not a triangle, because it is (just) possible to angle the 8

11 piece until the very slight impressions of the 'arm' areas catch the light. As has been found elsewhere, Group c punch marks are commonly found at Boss Hall - the semi-circular, double semi-circular, semi-circular with a solid semi-circle inside, ring and double ring marks all belong to this Group (Figures 6, 9-12). As was noted above, it is possible that the double ring and dot marks on Boss Hall G30 I 42CU (Figure 13) could be punchmarks, but they are so large (c. 5.5mm across) that they would have been difficult to make with a punch effectively. In addition, the inner ring has striations running round it (Figure 16) which indicate the marks could have been made by 'turning' using a suitably shaped tool. The ring punch used on the annular brooch G301 40CU, was broken, leaving impressions with a clear gap (Figure 10). The double ring punch used on 41CU was consistently struck at an angle, so that only part of the outer ring is visible (Figure 11). There are two examples of Group d punch marks, a probable double V form, and paired lines (Figures 8 and 14). These were both found on cruciform brooches, from grave 150 (25CU) and from grave 301 (50CU). The tool used on Gl50 25CU was used at an angle, so that only one of the 'arms' of the double V was impressed and, of this, only the outer part is clearly seen. It is also possible that the punch used was a V with a solid triangle inside it or even two long parallel lines (Figure 18), although the latter shape would be very unusual within the Anglo-Saxon dataset. The paired lines on G301 50CU are not of equal size, which makes it easy to tell that the tool had two parts to it, rather than one. One of the lines evidently had enlarged terminals, presumably based on the commonly-used joined dot or joined triangle designs (Figure 19); the other line is less distinct, which may mean either that the tool was hit at an angle, or that the lines were never equal in size. In passing, it is interesting note that the same impressions show dendrites (between the punchmarks and the incised lines), indicating the cast structure of the artefact. Punchmark layout. The marks are mainly applied in the manner observed on non-ferrous artefacts from Barrington (Cambridgeshire), the site selected for a pilot study on punchmarks. The marks are often laid out at the edges of the artefact, with the 'feet' of those marks which have them (eg V shaped and semi-circular marks) pointing outwards, presumably because it was easier to align the marks in this fashion. In several cases, artefacts were punchmarked along a central zone. Amongst the exceptions is the cruciform brooch from Grave 301, where the rather more complex design provided the opportunity to mark along raised strips on either side of the headplate, catchplate and other areas; as the punch used was of the paired line variety, this gives the raised strips a notched or beaded effect. A double semi-circular punch mark was used with the 'feet' of the mark pointing inwards on G CU. The semi-circular punch mark used on cruciform brooch 25CU was sometimes used in an interleaving design (Figure 20). Despite these exceptions, the punch marks were still basically being used to emphasise the edges and zones of the artefacts rather than being used to form freestanding designs (as seen in the silver bracelets, see below). It was originally thought that the girdle hangers from Boss Hall G301 could have been decorated with the same mark. Despite the impressions being double rings on one artefact (41CU) and double semi-circles (or possibly a semi-circle with a solid semi-circle inside) on the other (42CU), it was though that the punch might have been used at angle on 42CU. However, closer examination shows that the marks on 42CU are unlikely to have been made with the same tool that made the marks on 4ICU. In particular, when the marks on 42CU are examined at an angle (Figure 17), it appears that there is a distinct edge at the ends of the semi-circle, rather than the 'arms' of the mark disappearing smoothly into the surface of 9

12 the artefact. This indicates that the tool ended at this point, rather than the tool being hit an angle. As well as the differences in the type of punch mark used and their layout, the girdle hangers have several other significant differences in their design (eg the shape of the 'arms'). Silver The punchmarks are some of the most interesting features of the silver bracelets from Grave 313 Boss Hall and offer considerable potential for analysis. As the Boss Hall bracelets are so well preserved, they also provide an opportunity for investigating aspects of punch application, especially the variation which is introduced during and after manufacture. Punch marks from a comparable bracelet from Tuddenham (from Cambridge University Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology) were investigated in the course of this project but several other similar examples are known (information from Ken Penn), from as far apart as Norton (Cleveland), Broughton Lodge (Nottinghamshire) and Long Wittenham (Oxfordshire), which provide the potential for an interesting study in the future. Punchmal'k characterisation When viewed at high magnification, the V -shaped marks are quite distinctive (Figs 21a and b). Characteristic elements which could be sought again on other artefacts are the channel which separates the right and left 'legs', the notching on the inner triangle, the irregularities on the inner face of the left leg and the rounded lower end of the right leg of the mark. These features were observed on marks from both bracelets. Also visible, although less prominent were striations running parallel to and top of the right leg of the mark (upper, right-hand pair of arrows on Figure 22a) and across the left leg at an angle (lower, left-hand pair of arrows on Figure 22b). Once identified using peels and SEM examination, it is possible in some cases, to observe some of these distinctive features on marks on the bracelets themselves, using low-powered microscopy. Measurements of two lengths (x and y) and two angles (a and b) were carried out on the V marks (Figure 23). All four of these dimensions were recorded on eleven marks from 4AG, which gives an idea of the variation observed (Table 6). Some of the variation was due to the methods used (including the rather doubtful stability of curved peels, see below), as well as to the variable application of the punch. Certain areas - mainly the outer parts - of the punch could be seen less clearly in some cases than in others, agreeing with idea that the punch was sometimes hit at an angle or on a curved surface. In a previous punchmark study (Mortimer and Stoney 1996), V and double V punch marks were identified as a possible source of information about the files used at this time. Since the channel between the central triangle and the two legs of the V was presumably cut using a file, the profile of the cut must relate to that of the file itself. However, the channel could have been cut by repeated passes of the file, meaning that the relationship between file and channel profile was less exact. Nonetheless some information relating to this feature was recorded, including images of the tilted sample (Figure 24). The punch which made the ring marks was also distinctive, as the marks consistently included a gap in one area and a narrowing in another area (Figure 25). Three notches on one side may be manufacturing marks, perhaps from a file, or may be damage in use. The diameter of the ring mark is approximately 1.08mm. Thus it is rather smaller than the ring mark on the annular brooch from Boss Hall G30l 40CA. In addition although both these ring punches had a break in them, the overall shapes of the marks are quite different. The paired dots are less easily characterised, but there are some potentially distinctive elements, 10

13 including the elongation of the 'dots' towards the middle of the mark, and some internal features (Figure 26). The most difficult aspects of sample preparation and examination stemmed from the fact that the peels produced from the bracelets were naturally curved in two directions. This meant it was difficult to mount them for the SEM so as give a good electrical contact. Copious quantities of conductive paste were used and in some extreme cases, adhesive aluminium tape was used. The curvature also meant that it was difficult to view the punch marked areas. It is even possible that the elastic nature of the impression material means that the peels could have curled up more than on the original, unless supported. These difficulties meant it was very difficult to ensure representivity and reproducability and therefore a degree of inaccuracy in the measurements was inevitable. Because of these problems, although the angles on the V punch marks had been recorded to one decimal point, they are quoted here (Table 6) to the nearest whole degree. A silver ring from Boss Hall grave 151 (2AG) and a disc from grave 301 (6AG) were also punchmarked. These marks are not considered in detail in this report, but it is thought that the double dot punch marks on the ring are not from the same punch as the double dot marks on the silver bracelets (Draper unpublished). Marks on a silver bracelet from Tuddenham are dissimilar to those on the Boss Hall examples, as they comprise a double V, not a V with a solid triangle inside (op cit). Punchmark layout The 'paired dot' punch was used at approximately the top of the rise of the curved profile. On either side of these marks, the punch which gave a V -shaped mark with a smaller triangle inside was used, with the tip pointing away from the paired dot marks. Finally, at either end of the punch marked area, a group of five or more ring-shaped marks arranged in a cross or looped design with an oval of ring-shaped marks around it. Positioning of the punch marks is variable. For example, it seems to have been the intention to put the paired dot marks at the top of the rise with the V marks placed symmetrically on either side. In several cases, however, the V marks are near or on the top of the rise for at least a part of the sequence (eg at the points marked 'X' on Figure 27). Similarly, the designs formed by the ring-shaped marks are very variable (Figure 28). There is no clear evidence for a scored guideline on the surface of the bracelets, which would have encouraged more precise positioning. There must have been some understandable difficulties in using a punch accurately on the curved surfaces of the bracelets. In several cases (on both bracelets), the ring mark and the V mark overlap. In a small number of cases on SAG, paired dot and V marks overlap. V marks quite frequently overlap each other but ring marks only occasionally overlap each other. There is no clear evidence for paired dot marks overlapping each other. The order of application is unclear but there is some slight evidence to suggest that the V marks were done before the ring marks. Conclusions Analysis of metal compositions showed that the copper alloys used in the seventh century were similar to those used in the sixth century and that at least some continental imports were made of alloys which are comparable to those used in England. An exception is the high-tin bronze from Boss Hall grave 74 (not analysed). A high-quality silver was used for the silver bracelets and this may be related to the relatively high prestige of these pieces. 11

14 Further analysis of seventh- to ninth-century copper alloys and of fifth- to seventh-century silver alloys would clarify the nature of metal supply and use at these periods. The artefacts were made using a range of techniques which are typical for the early Anglo-Saxon period. Exceptions are the high-tin bronze from Boss Hall grave 74 and, probably, the tin-rich surfaces of the buckle set from Buttermarket context The manufacture ofthe silver bracelets was rather complicated and fiddly, but the techniques used were not in themselves unusual. Punchmarks were used frequently on both copper alloy and silver artefacts, although the standard of punch manufacture/maintenance and application seems rather poor amongst those used on copper alloy artefacts. The forms and layout types used were similar to those seen on many other early Anglo-Saxon artefacts. A study which characterised the punch marks used on other silver bracelets, and their layouts, would be of interest, for instance to investigate whether the output of distinct workshops can be identified. References Blades N 1995 'Copper alloys from English Archaeological Sites AD: An analytical study using ICP-AES' Royal Holloway and Bedford New College, University of London, PhD thesis Blades N 1996 'Copper alloy analysis' in Timby J (ed) The Anglo-Saxon cemetery at Empingham II, Rutland, Oxbow Monograph 70; Brownsword R, Ciuffini T and Carey R 'Metallurgical analyses of Anglo-Saxon jewellery from the Avon Valley' in West Midland Archaeology (CBA Group 8) 27: Brownsword R and Hines J 1993 'The alloys of a sample of Anglo-Saxon great squareheaded brooches' Antiquaries Journal 73; 1-10 Dickinson T M 1993 'Early Saxon saucer brooches: A preliminary overview' in Anglo-Saxon Studies in Archaeology and History 6; Draper A unpublished 'Punchmark analysis on a pair of bangles from Boss Hall' Reported submitted in part fulfilment of Conservation degree, Durham University Heyworth M P 1988a 'Analysis of the non-ferrous objects from the pagan Saxon cemeteries at Mucking, Essex' Ancient Monuments Laboratory Report 178/88 Heyworth M P 1988b 'Analysis of the copper alloy objects from the Anglo-Saxon settlement at Mucking, Essex' Ancient Monuments Laboratory Report 179/88 Hook D, La Niece S, Lang J, Cartwright C R and Meeks N D 1993 'Report on the scientific examination of an Anglo-Saxon composite disc brooch and other jewellery from Bosshall, Suffolk' Internal report, British Museum, Depts of Scientific Research and Medieval and Later Antiquities. Hughes M J and Hall J A 1979 'X-ray fluorescence analysis of Late Roman and Sassanian Silver Plate' Journal of Archaeological Science 6, Jones M U 1975 'A clay piece-mould of the Migration Period from Mucking, Essex' Antiquaries Journal 55; La Niece S 1993 'Silvering' in La Niece S and Craddock P (eds) Metal Plating and Patination; cultural, technical and historical developments (Butterworth-Heinemann); Leigh D, Cowell M and Turgoose S 1984 'The composition of some sixth century Kentish silver brooches' Historical Metallurgy 18(1); Meeks N 1993 'Surface characterisation of tinned bronze, high-tin bronze, tinned iron and arsenical bronze' in La Niece S and Craddock P (eds) Metal Plating and Patination; cultural, 12

15 technical and historical developments (Butterworth-Heinemann); Mortimer C 1986 'Early use of brass in silver alloys'. Oxford Journal of Archaeology 5 (2) Mortimer C 1988 'Anglo-Saxon copper alloys from Lechlade, Gloucestershire' Oxford Journal of Archaeology 7(2); Mortimer C 1990 'Some aspects of early medieval copper-alloy technology, as illustrated by a study of the Anglian cruciform brooch' DPhil thesis, Oxford University Mortimer C 1993a 'Technological comments on an early Anglo-Saxon cruciform brooch from Grave 301, Boss Hall, Ipswich' Ancient Monuments Laboratory Report 54/93 Mortimer C 1993b 'Chemical analysis of the copper alloys' pages in Scull C 'Excavations and Survey at Watchfield, Oxfordshire ', Archaeological Journal 149, Mortimer C 1993c 'Report on five probable cruciform brooches' pages in J Timby 'Sancton I Anglo-Saxon cemetery, excavations carried out between 1976 and 1980' Archaeological Journal 150; Mortimer C 1993d 'Analysis of early Anglo-Saxon brooches from Castledyke, Barton on Humber, South Humberside' Ancient Monuments Laboratory Report 46/93 Mortimer C 1993e 'Chemical compositions of Anglo-Saxon brooches in the Ashmolean collection' in MacGregor A and Bolick E, A Summmy Catalogue of the Anglo-Saxon Collections; Mortimer C 1994a 'Assessment of potential for technological research of silver, copper-alloy and glass artefacts from Boss Hall and St Stephen's Lane cemeteries, Ipswich, Suffolk' Ancient Monuments Laboratory Report 4/94 Mortimer C 1994b 'Analysis of copper-alloy cruciform brooches' in Hills C, Penn K and Rickett R, The Anglo-Saxon CemetelY at Spong Hill, North Elmham Part v.. Catalogue of Cremations (Nos ), East Anglian Archaeology 67; Mortimer C 1994c 'Lead-alloy models for three early Anglo-Saxon brooches' Anglo-Saxon Studies in Archaeology and HistOlY 7; Mortimer C 1996 'The florid and plainer cruciform brooches' J Timby (ed) Empingham II Anglo-Saxon cemetery Oxbow Monograph 70; Mortimer C and Anheuser K 1996 'Analysis of non-ferrous metal artefacts from Barrington (Edix Hill) Anglo-Saxon cemetery, Cambridgeshire' Ancient Monuments Laboratory Report 66/96 Mortimer C, Pollard A M and Scull C 1986 'X-ray fluorescence analysis of some Anglo Saxon copper alloy finds from Watchfield, Oxon' Historical Metallurgy 20(1): Mortimer C and Stoney M 1996 'Decorative punchmarks on non-ferrous artefacts from Barrington Edix Hill Anglo-Saxon Cemetery , Cambridgeshire' Ancient Monuments Laboratory Report 62/96 Oddy W A 1980 'Gilding and tinning in Anglo-Saxon England' in W A Oddy (ed) Aspects of early metallurgy, British Museum Occassional Papers 17: Oddy W A 1983 'Bronze alloys in Dark Age Europe' in R Bruce-Mitford (ed) The Sutton Hoo Ship burial, Volume 3(1l), (London: British Museum); Riederer J 1975 'Metallurgische untersuchung Ostgotichen Trachtzubehores, in V Bierbrauer (ed) 'Die Ostgotichen Grab- und Schatfunde in Italien' Biblioteca studi medievali 7: Salin E 1957 La Civilisation Merovingienne, d'apres les sepultures, les textes et Ie laboratoire. 3e partie: les techniques (Paris: Picard) Sherlock S and Welch M 1992 An Anglo-Saxon cemetery at Norton, Cleveland CBA Research 13

16 Report 82. London. Timby J 1996 Empingham II Anglo-Saxon cemetery Oxbow Monograph 70 Wardley K 1984 'X-ray fluorescence analysis of 'Bronze' objects' in Hills C, Penn K and Rickett R The Anglo-Saxon CemetelY at Spong Hill, part II/, East Anglian Archaeology 21; Whitfield N 1987 'Motifs and Techniques of Celtic Filigree: Are they original?' in Ryan M Ireland and Insular Art A.D Dublin. Wilthew P 1996 'Metallurgical analyses of pins and other mid-saxon copper-alloy objects from Saxon Southampton' in Hinton D A The gold, silver and other non:ferrous alloys ji om Hamwih, and the non:ferrous metalworking evidence; Wilthew P 1985a. 'Analysis of non-ferrous metal objects from Finglesham' Ancient Monuments Laboratory Report 4434 Wilthew P 1985b. 'Analysis of non-ferrous metal objects from Morning Thorpe, Norfolk' Ancient Monuments Laboratory Report 4724 Acknowledgements Alison Draper carried out the study of the punchmarks on the silver bracelets, whilst on a placement at the AML. Christopher Scull provided archaeological and typological information. 14

17 Appendix 1: Chemical analyses of non-ferrous alloys; early and middle Anglo-Saxon 1) Site-based surveys, all types of material a) quantitative Barrington (Mortimer and Anheuser 1996) Bergh Apton (Blades 1995) Boss Hall (this publication) Brandon (Blades 1995) Buttermarket (this publication) Castledyke (Mortimer 1993d C) Empingham (Blades 1995, 1996) Hamwih (Wilthew 1996) Lechlade (Mortimer 1988 S) Sancton (Blades 1995; Mortimer 1993c) Spong Hill (Mortimer 1994b C; Blades 1995) Sutton Hoo (Oddy 1983) Watchfield (Mortimer et al 1986 S; Mortimer 1993b S) West Garth Gardens (Blades 1995) West Heslerton (Blades 1995) b) qualitative and semi-quantitative Boss Hall (Hook et al 1993) Finglesham (Wilthew 1985a) Morning Thorpe (Wilthew 1985b) Mucking (Heyworth 1988a, 1988b) Spong Hill (Wardley 1984) 2) Object surveys a) quantitative Various brooches: Avon Valley (Brownsword et a/1984) Square-headed brooches (Brownsword and Hines 1993) C Various objects, Ashmolean Museum (Mortimer 1993e) Cruciform brooches (Mortimer 1990) C Saucer brooches (Dickinson 1993) C b) qualitative Square-headed brooches: Kent (Leigh et a/1984) NB XRF of the surface of corroded silver is not accurate C Notes C = with chronological aspects considered, S = object surfaces prepared before quantitative XRF analysis performed, but the results may still be affected. 15

18 Table 1: Percentage frequency of alloy types at Brandon and Hamwih, based on Blades 1995 and WiIthew 1996 Site and material type Alloy type Brandon, small Brandon, Hamwih, Hamwih, other cast (n=95) wrought (n =42) pins (n = 106) (n=137) Bronze Brass Leaded bronze Leaded brass Leaded gunmetal

19 Table 2: SEM-EDX analyses of copper alloys from Boss Hall and Buttermarket (St Stephen's Lane) cemeteries (weight %) Boss Hall Gravel SF Fe Ni Cn Zn As Ag Sn Ph Context G150 23CU 0.1 nd nd Gl50 24CU 0.2 nd Gl50 25CU 0.3 nd nd nd Gl50 26CU 0.3 nd nd G150 27CU 0.4 nd nd nd * G301 40CU 0.3 nd nd * 4.0* G301 41CU 0.1 nd nd G301 42CU 0.2 nd G301 46CU G301 50CU nd G94 21CU 0.3 nd nd G94 22CU 0.1 nd * G97 28CU 0.1 nd nd G97 31CU 0.0 nd nd nd G97 36CU 0.1 nd nd nd Bnttermarket (St Stephen's Lane) Context SF Fe Ni Cn Zn As Ag Sn Ph C 0.3 nd nd C 0.2 nd nd * 4.3* C 0.1 nd C (loop) 0.2 nd nd C (plate) 0.2 nd C 0.2 nd nd (tongue) C 0.3 nd nd C 0.4 nd nd C 0.3 nd nd ' C 0.2 nd C 0.1 nd nd * C 1.4 nd C (loop) tr? nd C nd nd nd (tongue) 0.3*1 = element has significant variation Notes * 17

20 Table 3: SEM-EDX analyses of four copper-alloy standards (weight %) C30*08 Fe Ni Cn Zn As Ag Sn Pb EDX#1 nd nd nd nd EDX #2 nd nd nd 0.1 nd std values C71*08 EDX#l nd EDX #2 nd nd std values BCS207 EDX#1 nd nd EDX#2 nd nd std values C30*09 EDX#1 nd nd nd nd nd EDX#2 nd nd nd nd nd nd std values L..., Table 4: Results of duplicate analyses on two samples from Buttermarket (weight %) 2297 belt plate 1608 Fe Ni Cn Zn As Sn Pb Mean (n=14) Standard Deviation belt plate 1895 Mean (n=6) Standard Deviation Note Silver was not determined for any of these analyses, so is omitted here. 18

21 Table 5: Punchmark catalogue, non-ferrous artefacts Grave/SF Artefact Visual ID Dimension (mm) Positioning Preservation type Boss Hall Gl50 Cruciform Semi-circle Not measurable Along edges Very poor 23CU brooch G150 Small-long Double semi- At least 2.0 Along edges, feet Poor 24CU brooch circle pointing in G150 Cruciform Y? Not measured Headplate; at edges Poor 25CU brooch Double V? c. 2.3 (longest Catchplate; at edge, Poor extant length) feet outwards Semi-circle c. 1.4 (max.) Foot; at edge, Poor sometimes in interlocking pattern G313 4AG Silver V with solid c. 2.9 (see Table See text and Figures Good bracelet triangle 6) 27 and 28 inside Ring c. 1.1 Good I Paired dots not measured Good G3135AG Silver As above I bracelet G301 Annular Ringlbroken 1.4 (diameter) Down the middle of Poor 40CU brooch ring the object G301 Girdle Double ring 0.11 (diameter At edges/dowo middle Fair 41CU hanger inner ring) of the object G301 Girdle Double semi (from upper At edges/dowo middle Fair 42CU hanger circle edge to lower of the object edge) Double ring 3.74 (inner ring) In middle of object Good and dot* G301 Cruciform Two lines 1.34 (length of On raised strips, Good 50CU brooch longer line) within design Buttermarket (St Stephen's Lane) 1306 Strap end Triangle 1.32 (height) At edges Fair sf9106 i * This mark was probably made by turning, not by punching. See text. 19

22 Table 6: Dimensions on eleven punchmarks on silver bracelet 4AG. Mark (Stub Lengths Angles number) x y a 86d e g b 87a b b a ib iib iic ib III 20

23 20 o ';f'.. ~!O [J o 0 o I 0 'l. 0 cj' o o S "~ Site Buttenllarket o BossHaU 12 0 Sn% Figure I a: Zinc vs tin content 7~ ';f'.. ~ 4j o o o o,-- Site Buttenllarket o Boss HaU o Sn"lo Figure I b: Lead vs tin content

24 Figure 2: Side view of impression taken from inside one of the drilled holes on reverse of cruciform brooch Boss Hall G 150 CA23. Note concentric lines. Secondary electron image.

25 Figure 3: Schematic drawing of beading on wires of silver bracelets, showing medial furrow and erratic spacing. e.. II I: X V 00 Ab.~ r'\ ~ IA IA 1" " Figure 4: Typological scheme for punchmarks; first line = Group a, second line = Group b, third to fifth Iin~s = Group c, sixth line = Group d forms and last line = Group e from. From Mortimer and Stoney \'.. 'tj...

26 ,, '", ' I r\ r,;, t:::\ o A II Figure 5: Punchmark fonns found on copper alloy artefacts from Boss Hall and Buttennarket

27 Figure 6: Double semi-circular punchmark on small-long brooch, Boss Hall Gl50 24CU. Bar = 200f.! Figure 7: Two V-shaped punchmarks on cruciform brooch, Boss Hall G CU. Bar = hum Figure 8: One arm of a probable double V punclnuark on cruciform brooch, Boss Hall GI50 25CU. Bar = Imm Figure 9: Two semi-circular punchmarks on cruciform brooch, Boss Hall Gl50 25CU. Bar = 200f.!

28 Figure 10: Ring punchmark, with break, on annniar brooch Boss Hall, CU. Bar = Figure 11: Donble ring punchmark on girdle hanger Boss Hall G301 41CU. Bar = 300~1 Figure 12: Donble semi-circle, or semi-circle with solid semi-circle inside, on girdle hanger Boss Hall CU. Bar = Figure 13: Part of double ring and dot mark (possibly not a punchmark) on girdle hanger Boss Hall G301 42CU. Bar= Imm

29 Figure 14: Paired line punchmark (one whole mark and one partial mark (left)) on cruciform brooch Boss Hall G301 50CU. Note dendrites. Bar = 200 f l Figure 15: Triangular punchmark on strap end from Buttennarket 1306 A9106. Bar =200f! Figure 16: Detail of inner ring of ring and dot mark on girdle hanger Boss Hall G301 42CU. Bar = loof! Figure 17: Tilted view of double semicircle or semi-circle with solid semicircle inside, on girdle hanger on Boss Hall G301 42CU. Secondary electron image. Bar = 100 f l

30 /A;: l\\ :-Ir \ / Figure 18: Possible shape of punch used on crucifonn brooch Boss Hall G150, 25CU; dashed line indicates area impressed on artefact 1 I Figure ]9: Joined dots and joined triangles punchmark fonns ~ Figure 20: Layout of semi-circular punch marks on crucifonn brooch Boss Hall G15025CA

31 a b Figure 11.: V punchmark on silver bracelet Ag It. Topographic BSE image 'lit' fi'om right side, anows showing potentially distinctive features. FigureZIb": the same punchmark 'lit' from upper left side.