Body Art-Gender Roles and Social Status, or Simple Storytelling? 1

Transcription

1 Body Art-Gender Roles and Social Status, or Simple Storytelling? 1 A Question of Body Art as a tool for story telling or as a social status marker in Western Society A Thesis Presented to the Faculty in Communication and Leadership Studies School of Professional Studies Gonzaga University Under the Supervision of Dr. Alexa Dare Under the Mentorship of Giovanni Caputo In pursuit of the fulfillment Of the Requirements for the Degree of a Master of Arts in Communication and Leadership Studies By Essence A. Batson May 2012

2 Body Art-Gender Roles and Social Status, or Simple Storytelling? 2

3 Body Art-Gender Roles and Social Status, or Simple Storytelling? 3 Abstract This qualitative study explores the current role of body art in Western Society. The question is whether body art still defines gender roles and social status as it has done in other societies in its history, or if it is simply used to express ones interior thoughts and beliefs. Literature presented in this thesis studies the framework of Sherif s social judgment theory (1965) concerning public perceptions and evaluation. The study is informed by Barthes (1994) idea of semiotics. This idea incorporates the social production of meaning from sign systems-the analysis of anything that can stand for something (p.332 ). Lastly, signaling theory was integrated into the foundation of this study as well. The signaling theory deals with the idea of symbolic communication and social benefit as it relates to individual strategic action. Together, the three theories guided the study s focus on the factors that come into play when deciding gender roles, social status, symbols, and the meaning that is interpreted from those symbols. The insight from the literature and results of this study lead to the realization of a few things: 1) body art still provides reference to social status, but not so much gender roles. Although there are still expectations as to where body art should be placed on a female as opposed to where it should be placed on a male. Different placements of the body art provoke different reactions and interpretations. The findings in this study lend themselves to communication studies by giving light to the importance of non-verbal communication and the messages that are created through this communication, be it intentional or unintentional.

4 Body Art-Gender Roles and Social Status, or Simple Storytelling? 4 Table of Contents Signature Page.2 Abstract 3 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 5 Importance of the study...5 Statement of the Goal.. 5 Statement of the Problem. 5 Definition of Terms..6 Organization of Remaining Chapters...6 CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF LITERATURE.8 Philosophical and Ethical Assumptions...8 Body Art and the idea of Otherness.8 Body art and Semiotics.10 Body Art and Signaling Theory.12 Religious rituals and Commitments...14 Body Art and Social Judgment Theory..16 Body Art and Personality Disorders..18 Body Art as Signs of Status or Hierarchy..20 Body art as Identification of Ethnicity, Rank or Gender...22 Body art as a Depiction or Imitation of The Exotic Other..24 RATIONALE 24 Research Question.26 CHAPTER 3: SCOPE AND METHODOLOGY.26 Scope..28 Methodology..28 Instrumentation CHAPTER 4: THE STUDY 29 Data Analysis.30 Results of Study.30 Results by Race of participants..31 Results by Sex of participants 32 Results by age group of participants..33 Implications of Interviews.35 Discussion..36 CHAPTER 5: SUMMARIES AND CONCLUSIONS.40 Limitations of the Study 40 Further Study Recommendations..40 Conclusions 40 References..42 Appendix 44

5 Body Art-Gender Roles and Social Status, or Simple Storytelling? 5 Chapter 1 Introduction Importance of the Study This study is important to facilitate understanding of the history of body art, the many reasons a person might have for obtaining body art, and the many pre-judgments of body art. The problem is that many young people in today s society are obtaining body art for the sole purpose of decoration without the knowledge that there is actual historic background for body art. This creates sub-meaning for some symbols that carried an initial meaning of importance at one point and time. This, in turn, provokes a different response from citizens of different age groups who may have known certain symbols to hold other meaning in their time. This cross-understanding of mistaken symbolism also occurs across cultures. As previous work in this area shows, the origin of body art lies heavily in cultural foundation. For instance, in some African cultures, if a woman had a tattoo on her foot and ankle, it was a sure indication that the woman was now married. Gender and social status were reviewed in previous work in this area. This study will build on this area. Today, a woman with a tattoo on her foot and ankle could just be proving that she can endure the excruciating pain of having a needle drilling on one of the most sensitive bone areas of the body, or she could simply believe that the tattoo will enhance her mysteriousness or sex appeal. The reason for obtaining the body art or the interpretation of the body art is typically entirely arbitrary and in the eyes of the beholders in the present day. However, in earlier times in society, body art served the purposes of identifying citizens of certain tribes. In this study, I plan to examine other

6 Body Art-Gender Roles and Social Status, or Simple Storytelling? 6 foundations of body art, as well as the theories that relate to the interpretations of the body art in today s society. Definitions of Terms Used Age- the number of years that have passed since birth Gender-the sex that a person identifies as belonging to The complex constructs are defined as follows: Religion-the set of attitudes, practices, and beliefs (or belief systems) that a person holds regarding the service of worship of God or the supernatural Upbringing- the manner in which a person was raised, and what the individual was raised to believe History-a chronological record of significant events (as affecting a nation or institution) often including an explanation of their causes Perception- observation Social Status- A person s position or rank in relation to others in society Organization of Remaining Chapters The remaining chapters are organized in the order of influence. The literature review discusses the philosophical and ethical assumptions as well as the theoretical basis for this study. Then, other ideas are reviewed as they relate. The rationale for this study is discussed following the review of literature. Finally in Chapter 2, the research question that emerged from the literature review is revealed. In Chapter 3, the scope and methodology of this study are reviewed; and the data analysis, results of the study, and implications of this study are the components of Chapter 4. Chapter 5 includes the

7 Body Art-Gender Roles and Social Status, or Simple Storytelling? 7 conclusion of this study. This conclusion outlines the limitations of the study as well as further study recommendations.

8 Body Art-Gender Roles and Social Status, or Simple Storytelling? 8 Chapter 2: Literature Review Philosophical and Ethical Assumption. Prior to engaging in the study of literature on the topic of body art, the philosophical assumption of the topic was that those with body art are expressing a non-verbal form of communication. Thus, people who possess tattoos or any other form of body art are trying to convey a message or tell a story about themselves. The assumption was that people in society, specifically in Western society, have a darkened view of those who possess body art. This view almost seems tainted. Simply because a person has chosen to express herself or himself in an alternative form, that person is placed in a certain category of a certain type of person. It often appears that those with body art are assumed to be devious or to perhaps carry a hidden agenda, or very possibly carry affiliation with the devil for those who were raised in a religious household. The original research question in this study was, What message, exactly, does body art convey to society? However, after reviewing literature, it became more evident that this question was much too broad due to the variety of messages that could possibly be conveyed through body art. Thus, the question then became In Western society, is body art used as more of a way to tell a story, or has it now been transformed into a social status marker? Otherness. In Wokler s 1996 review of Todorov s idea of otherness, he compared it with two other philosophies of the perception. Todorov s central focus is on the multifarious categories of human diversity (Wokler p.43). From this review, it is evident that Todorov finds value in recognizing human differences. This idea of recognizing human differences relates directly to this particular study in the sense that body art and body markings are both ways of individualizing people. Todorov believed

9 Body Art-Gender Roles and Social Status, or Simple Storytelling? 9 our differences to be the foundation of a more variegated, but also deeper and more subtle, notion of community (Wokler, p.46). So it is interpreted that our differences are really the things that make us who we are as individuals. Otherwise, we would all be grouped. Todorov also held the position that we are drawn to others just on account of their difference from ourselves nevertheless ebrace a captivating ethos of charity, curiosity, and humanity (Wokler, p.45).this explained the negative viewpoints of some when it comes to body art in today s society. It seems to stem from a very healthy curiosity, as well as a desire to give attention to our fellow man as needed. Unfortunately, these things are often overshadowed by ignorance, misunderstanding, and judgment. Todorov envisages not only toleration of otherness but also engagement with it, such that even in the recognition of the impenetrability of other minds, we find ourselves uplifted by our endeavor to enter into communion with them and enriched by our perception of their differences from us and their diversity among themselves (p. 45). Thus, if people were to engage in embracing otherness, it would bring about a certain degree of togetherness and enhance relationships. This notion of embracing the differences of others makes sense when it comes to connectedness and realizing that no two people are the same. Inherently, this is what makes the world go around. If this weren t the case, the world would be an insanely boring place. The study of Todorov s theory also reviews the contrary views of otherness. Rousseau, denies that mankind is by nature sociable (Wokler, 1996, p. 49). This viewpoint explains why some might reject the notion of otherness. Anything different from what a person is accustomed to, was taught, or grew up with, could very well bring about apprehension and judgment due to anxiety and a simple lack of

10 Body Art-Gender Roles and Social Status, or Simple Storytelling? 10 knowledge. Smith, on the other hand subscribed to the view that it was social factors and social expectations which shaped the personality of individuals, and not individuals, calculating what they ought to do in a pre-political state of nature, who manufactured society (Wokler,1996, p.50). Smith, one of three of the most towering figures in European intellectual history of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth century (Wokler, 1996,p. 55 ), seemed to hold a more black and white view of otherness. Thus, the view of a person s personality and character would be shaped by whether that individual possesses body art. Body Art, Tattoos, and Scarification as they relate to Semiotics and Signaling Theory Semiotics. Semiotics is described as The study of the social production of meaning from sign systems; the analysis of anything that can stand for something else (Griffin, 2012, p.332). Semiotics uses the system of a sign, a signifier, and signified as a system that works together. The sign is the inseparable combination of the signifier and the signifier (Griffin, 2012, p. 333). As it relates to this study, the body art would be the sign. The signifier is the physical form of the sign as we perceive it through our senses; an image (Griffin, 2012, p. 333). For the purposes of this study, we can envision a tattoo of a cross. This cross symbolizes some meaning for the person who possesses the body art, but it is not the meaning of the word cross itself. The signified is the meaning we associate with the sign (Griffin, 2012, 333). In the case of body art, the signified is obviously in the eye of the beholder. A cross, for a practicing Christian, will hold a very much different meaning than a cross would hold for an atheist who may see this image. The cross would evoke completely separate emotions for these two viewers.

11 Body Art-Gender Roles and Social Status, or Simple Storytelling? 11 Griffin (2012) also describes different types of sign systems: the denotative sign system and the connotative sign system. A denotative sign system contains a descriptive sign without ideological content (Griffin, 2012, p. 336). This means that, for example, the person who views the cross could instantly remember sitting in the front row at a church and the experiences and emotions that came along with that memory. On the contrary, the person who views the cross could easily associate that cross with a cross s having been burned on the front lawn of his or her home when he or she was a young child. A connotative sign system contains a mythic sign that has lost its historical referent; form without substance (Griffin, 2006, p.337). An example of a connotative sign as it relates to body art would be if the cross were to be placed on top of the letters M.O.E. (Money Over Everything). For the person who grew up as a Christian and recognizes that cross as sacred, this sign would lose its historical referent for them; it would have no substance in this sign. The abbreviation M.O.E would be the perfect example of ideology as it is introduced in semiotics. Ideology is described as knowledge presented as common sense or natural, especially when its social construction is ignored or suppressed (Griffin, 2006, p. 338 ). M.O.E. is a term that is often used in the culture of rap music. Its social construction is ignored or suppressed by those who do not share or hold the belief that they should place money over everything else in their lives. This would matter when it came to the social production of meaning. If the sign systems are not shared sign systems, then several different meanings could be produced. Signaling Theory. Next, signaling theory will be discussed as it relates to this study of body art. Bliege Bird and Smith (2005) stated the following in their article: Signaling theory provides an opportunity to integrate an interactive theory of symbolic

12 Body Art-Gender Roles and Social Status, or Simple Storytelling? 12 communication and social benefit with materialist theories of individual strategic action and adaptation (p. 221) Bliege Bird and Smith (2005) introduced the concept of evolutionary ecology. They reported that this ecology explains the three approaches that are often used in Signaling: the run away approach, the sensory-exploitation view, and the costly-signaling or handicap approach. The runaway approach In this approach, relatively arbitrary observer preferences that are correlated via genetic inheritance to signal, can lead to the elaboration of signals over evolutionary time as preferences and signals co-evolve (Bliege Bird & Smith, 2005, p.223). An example of this approach would be a young girl with big breast. This young girl may have inherited large breasts naturally, but unfortunately, to the arbitrary observer, this woman s inheritance may elaborate signals of some sexual feelings as this woman grows from a young girl into a woman. So for an adult male in Western society today, his preferences could probably be related to something sexual due to his aesthetic wiring, and lead to the elaboration of this signal over evolutionary time. In the 1940 s, this preference may have been different because women s bodies were much more concealed. Sensory-exploitation view The Sensory-exploitation view Shares with the run-away approach the assumption that observers have pre existing preferences [perhaps evolved in other contexts] which lead them to be attracted to certain signals and that signals which exploit these preferences by being even more elaborate (so-called supernormal stimuli) can be favored even if they are relatively arbitrary or maladaptive (Ryan, 1998, p. 224).

13 Body Art-Gender Roles and Social Status, or Simple Storytelling? 13 This view could be exercised, for instance, if a young adult s mother possesses a tattoo that the child has grown up seeing, and understands the meaning of. Later in life, the individual happens to see another adult with a similar tattoo or with body art that carries similar meaning, this young adult is inclined to favor and accept this tattoo or body art simply because it is familiar. Costly-signaling theory Costly-signaling theory utilizes the communication of attributes that are relatively difficult or expensive to perceive directly and that vary in quality, intensity, or degree between signalers (either groups or individuals). (Bird and Smith, 2005) The definition of this theory alone seems to define a tattoo. Many times, tattoos are difficult to perceive, depending on the meaning of the tattoo, the artist, or the artistry, and age. They are expensive, and definitely vary in quality, intensity, or degree-again depending on the physical placement of the tattoo on the body, or the meaning of it. This definition relates strongly to the definition of Semiotics. The body art, tattoos or scarification produce meaning (Barthes, 1994), that could be viewed as symbolic communication and strategic action. This identification is further justified later by Bliege Bird and Smith (2005) when they stated that a given pattern of action might signal particular hidden attributes, provide benefits to both signaler and observers, and meet the conditions for honest communication. This statement helps to bring understanding to the idea that the sign of a tattoo, body art or scarification could benefit both those who are tempted to pass judgment and those who possess the body art. Instead of constant miscommunication or assumptions surrounding the meaning of the body art, the body art is positioned to free the mind of the observers, as well as communicate for the signalers.

14 Body Art-Gender Roles and Social Status, or Simple Storytelling? 14 This is the production of meaning referred to in the study of semiotics. It is entirely possible that those who are tempted to judge feel an inner sense of excitement or freedom when viewing the tattoo, and perhaps the possessor of the body art or tattoo feels a certain sense of responsibility to provide that freedom or excitement. Essentially, they are freeing the observer by subjecting them to such expression. This thought is further confirmed by a statement in the article in which BleigeBird and Smith (2005) state, who stated, Signaling theory provides a way to articulate idealist notions of the intangible social benefits that might be gained through symbolic representations of self with more materialist notions of individuals as self-interested but socially embedded decision makers (Bird and Smith, 2005, p. 222) These social benefits gained could include a form of expression that cannot be rejected, and virtually cannot be ignored. Approval would also be a social benefit of body art. Three areas for signaling dynamics were examined in Bird and Smith s article: unconditional generosity, wasteful subsistence activities, and artistic elaboration. Body art, tattoos, and scarification naturally fall into the latter area. However, to some observers, they could be classified as wasteful subsistence activities. Religious Rituals and Commitments. Bliege Bird and Smith (2005) also discussed other areas that Signaling theory affects. Religious rituals and commitments are mentioned in this section. Walking on coals is mentioned as an example of a sign comparable to obtaining body art in its dramatic sense of a person going to extremes, such as permanently altering one s body, to send a message. Monumental architecture is listed as one of the first anthropological applications of costly-signaling theory analyzed (p.231). This would explain the strong symbolism of architecture such as the

15 Body Art-Gender Roles and Social Status, or Simple Storytelling? 15 Statue of Liberty or the Bermuda Triangle. Both of these historical figures have meaning of their own that is expressed to observers through a mere glance. Peace discussed body art as being an integral part of spiritual and ritualistic practices of all peoples. (2000, p. 591) In this sense, body art connects a person with his or her ancestors, and spirits, and thus improves relationships between people and the higher beings. Of course, this is not the case for each individual who connects to body art, but this could very well be the case for those who were raised in a culture where body art truly did hold meaning. The Broader Implications of Signaling Theory. Issues that arise with the application of costly signaling are carefully examined, and signaling displays are examined, as is the level of intensity associated with each signal. Intensity and form are then connected to cross-cultural variation. Hage, Harary, and Milicic (1993), compared several different cultural beliefs related to body art. The Polynesian culture, the Fijian culture, the Tongan, Ponapean, Austronesian, Micronesian and Samoan cultures are all accounted for, and examined to find the social value of body art in each culture, as well as the role that body art played in terms of gender roles in each culture. Barthes chapter on Semiotics refers to this history of cultures as Connotative Sign Systems (2012, p. 337). The connotative sign system is described as a mythic sign that has lost its historical referent; it is form without substance. This particular system connects semiotics with the signaling theory. This explains the transition that body art has made from simply symbolizing one s status, to translating meaning and value. The main difference between semiotics and signaling theory is the perspective. Semiotics is framed primarily from the perspective of the observer, and the observer s history and context. Signaling theory is more of a joint effort between the signaler and the

16 Body Art-Gender Roles and Social Status, or Simple Storytelling? 16 observer. It takes both the observer and the possessor of the body art to bring their meanings together. Body Art as it relates to Social Judgment Theory. When Sherif devised the social judgment theory, he reviewed the ease with which we, as a society, judge each other, each other s actions, and more. In this chapter, the social judgment theory is described as the perception and evaluation of an idea by comparing it with current attitudes. (as cited in Griffin, 2012, p. 195) This theory relates to the philosophical assumptions held by the author of this study, by explaining the thought process that humans go through when judging one another. In this chapter, three different latitudes are discussed: latitude of acceptance, latitude of rejection, and latitude of non-commitment. Latitude of Acceptance. Latitude of acceptance is described as, the range of ideas that a person sees as reasonable or worthy of consideration (Sherif, 1965, p. 195). Body art and tattoos seem to be outside of much of the latitudes of acceptance in Western society. The simple fact that corporations and organizations have the right not to hire, or to fire a qualified applicant based on whether he or she possess visible body art is proof of this lack of acceptance. Latitude of rejection. Latitude of rejection is described as The range of ideas that a person sees as neither unreasonable nor objectionable (Sherif, 1965, p. 195). This latitude belongs to the portion of Western society who holds very strong religious beliefs, and who may believe that marking the body is wrong or sinful. Latitude of non-commitment. The Latitude of non-commitment is described as the range of ideas that a person sees as neither acceptable nor objectionable (Sherif, 1965, p.

17 Body Art-Gender Roles and Social Status, or Simple Storytelling? ). It seems as if there are a good number of people in society who place tattoos or body art in this latitude. It could also be easily assumed that these people don t have a strong religious upbringing, or have a strong respect for personal opinions and decisions. All of these latitudes directly relate to Semiotics in the sense that their own range of ideas helps to create the meaning that is produced when presented with visual signs or symbols. Ego-Involvement. Sherif also addressed the concept of Ego-Involvement which can be described as The importance or centrality of an issue to a person s life, often demonstrated by membership in a group with a known stand (as cited in Griffin, 2012, p.195). This concept describes the reason for interest in this topic. This study is being conducted by a carrier of tattoos who is fully aware of the reasons for possessing this body art, is aware of the experiences as a member of society with body art, was not raised in a strict religion, but has developed a curiosity regarding the other half of that equation. Pluralistic Ignorance. Later in this chapter, the idea of pluralistic ignorance is explored (Griffin, 2012, p. 202) This concept is described as the mistaken idea that everyone else is doing or thinking something that they aren t (Sherif, 1965,p. 202). This notion should cause us to ponder just how many people in Western society are practicing Pluralistic ignorance when judging those with tattoos. It appears that the most important aspect of this theory is the latitude of acceptance. If a person is unable to view something as reasonable or worthy, it is highly unlikely that that person will even take the time to consider the reasonability or worthiness of an idea or object to even consider its reasonability or worthiness.

18 Body Art-Gender Roles and Social Status, or Simple Storytelling? 18 Tattoos as they relate to Personality Disorders. A 1968 article by Post entitled The Relationship of Tattoos to Personality Disorders, defines the problem. The author provided some naval research findings, criminal findings, superstitions, psychological significance of tattoos, and their relation to the Veterans Administration Hospital, as well as Youth Offender Research. The purpose of the article was to show that the presence of a tattoo, or tattoos, could serve to indicate the presence of a personality disorder which could lead to, or is characterized by, behavior which deviates from contemporary social norms (Post,1968, p.516). Post discussed medical uses for tattoos, the history of tattoos in different cultures such as those of the German, French, and Italians, the historical and modern risks of tattooing, some factors that may motivate people to obtain body art, and more. This may evoke curiosity about the opposite: What prevents people from using this form of expression, outside of religious reasons? Post roughly concludes: if a person s internal perception of society is such that he feels he must embellish his body with signs, symbols, or figures to reflect his internalized self-perceptions, these markings should be taken as indicators of some type of personality disorder (Post,1968, p. 524). This conclusion seems to be a bit presumptuous due to the fact that the decision to obtain body art is never a must, but it does bring an interesting perspective to topic. It is up for debate whether the following statement from the Journal of American Folklore applies to this theory of tattoos relating to personality disorders: The tattooed or pierced individual is attempting to rip himself from the homogeneousmass of people and establish an ego that communicates with the environment. A stigmatized, emaciated, abraded, or tattooed identity is better than a fragmented ego, and perhaps more attractive than other alternatives our society offers (Hewitt, 1999, p.562).

19 Body Art-Gender Roles and Social Status, or Simple Storytelling? 19 As personality disorders go, they create meaning for a person, who they are, or appear to be. In this light, Semiotics seems to be the best theory to intertwine with the idea that those who possess body art have an automatic connection with a disorder. To those who grew up with body art being a family tradition, or a part of their culture, this could be highly offensive. With Gell s (1993) work on tattooing in Polynesia, he discussed a double skin folded over itself, mediating relations between persons, the sacred, and the present and the past (Schildkrout, 2004, p. 321).Gell went on to report With tattoo, the body multiplies; additional organs and subsidiary selves are created; spirits, ancestors, rulers and victims take up residence in an integument which begins to take on a life of its own (p.39). He describes tattooing as simultaneously the exteriorization of the interior which is simultaneously the interiorization of the exterior (Gell, 1993, 38-39). This means that, in Gell s eyes, obtaining tattoos was essentially flipping oneself inside out. It meant being able to express the self by saying with art, what a person is unable to speak verbally for whatever reason. Gell expressed the belief that not only does the tattooed skin negotiates between the individual and society and between different social groups, but it also mediates between persons and spirits, the human and the divine (p. 321). Schildkrout (2004) stated that tattooing, branding, and piercing are technically distinct, and are used to express different kinds of identities in different social contexts (p.322) This statement refers to the importance of context. In the context of a sorority or fraternity, a brand could represent loyalty to a person s organization; and before the Civil War, a Negro runaway slave would be said to have country marks, or marks on the

20 Body Art-Gender Roles and Social Status, or Simple Storytelling? 20 skin referring to the person s African ethnicity, in addition to scars from diseases, accidents, or beatings, and brands showing the name of the owner (Windley 1983, p.323). Tattoos as Signs of Status/Hierarchy. As it relates to social status, signaling theory seems to best describe this next topic since it was absolutely a non-verbal form of communication, and sent a message to a receiver. Aisien and Nevadomsky (1995) discussed the art of scarification. Their article focuses on the Benin City of Nigeria. Among the Bini citizens, the art of tattooing was referred to as iwu. (p.63) The author explains the history of tattoos as marks of identity that distinguish people as the native sons and daughters (p. 63) Iwu was described as a portion of sacred skin that communicated social identity (Aisien and Nevadomsky, 1995, p. 64).The different meanings and significant messages sent through these many forms of body art are discussed, along with an explanation of how the different placements of the art had effects on the meanings of the art. It was said that some scars proved that one came from a good family (p.65). Gender variations are addressed in this article, as well as the refusal of marriage, and acceptance into certain palaces due to the lack of body art or scarification. This article clearly outlines the history of body art as identifiers. During the time of the Bini citizens, tattoos were not simply used as non-verbal forms to express thoughts or beliefs. The possession of a tattoo actually dictated an individual s place in this society. In his 1996 review of Gell s 1992 book, Herdt also discusses Gell s inquiry into whether tattooing is always for status elevation or status degradation (Gell,1993, p.283).

21 Body Art-Gender Roles and Social Status, or Simple Storytelling? 21 Schildkrout (2004) focused on the inscribed body as it responds to postmodern theory, the importance of body art in contemporary Western culture, reflections on the meaning of representations of the exotic, and an interest in the visible surface of the body as the interface between the individual and society (p. 319). In Aisien and Nevadomsky s 1995 article entitled The Clothing of Political Identity: Costume, and Scarification in the Benin Kingdom, skin is discussed as a visible way of defining individual identity and cultural differences (2004, p. 319). Earlier than this study, Foucalut focused on the body as a text upon which social reality is inscribed (Mascia- Lee & Sharpe, 1992, p. 147). This focus seems to point directly towards the storytelling aspect of body art. Both Mascia-Lee and Sharpe seem to believe that body art is a way to learn more about a person and his or her story. Rubin noted, a shift in many aspects of Western tattooing (the nature of the people who created tattoos, involving a shift from tattooists to tattoo artists), a change in clientele (from sailors, bikers, and gang members to middle and upper class); and a change in iconography (from the badge-like images based on repetitive premade designs known as flash to customized full-body tattoo influenced by Polynesian and Japanese tattoo art) (1988,p. 335). This statement alone is a testament to the blurred lines in society, and how tattooed bodies are becoming more and more of the norm everyday. There even exists a hierarchy within the tattoo community. There is the Extreme, category, which includes those who have extensive piercings, brands and tattoos covering their bodies, and especially parts like the face and hands that cannot be concealed with clothing (Cummings, 2001, p.337).

22 Body Art-Gender Roles and Social Status, or Simple Storytelling? 22 Tattoos as Identification of Ethnicity, Rank, or Gender. Cummings (2001) also noted that tattoos were said to signal a youth s transition to adulthood, and also signified an unmarried woman to the public. One example was of a woman who received her first facial tattoo at the age of thirteen following her first menstrual cycle, and her next tattoos were her tattoos on her torso following her marriage. In the article review entitled, Tattoo, Torture, Mutilation, and Adornment: The Denaturalization of the Body in Culture and Text by Alfred Gell (1996), he questions whether tattooing is always for status elevation or status degradation. This inquiry was listed as a problematic point (Herdt, 1996, p. 395) As stated above in the section labeled Tattoos as Signs of Status/Hierarchy, there was once a time when both the men and women of the Benin palace needed tattoos in order to marry. In the article entitled The Clothing of Political Identity: Costume and Scarification in the Benin Kingdom, it is also stated in this article that up until 1930, no male citizens without tattoos could exercise his prerogative of membership in the palace societies (Aisien and Nevadomsky, 1995, 68). It is stated that the absence of tattoos was a serious civic handicap (Aisien and Nevadomsky,1995, p.68 ). There was a belief in the Benin palace that an adult without iwu, was a person who still had clotted bad fluid in his system, and was not considered a Bini citizen. Those citizens without iwu were immediately identified as such outsiders. This article inferred that what could be interpreted from tattoos reaffirmed separations of ethnicity, social gender, and rank between king and commoners, princes and princesses, and the king s elite bodyguard (Aisien and Nevadomsky, 1995, p.68). Jean Borgatti also states in this article that an individual s role by communicating in visual and symbolic terms the general parameters

23 Body Art-Gender Roles and Social Status, or Simple Storytelling? 23 of expected behavior (Borgatti 1983, 10). Woman in this palace had more than twice the amount of tattoos as men did. This article indicates that the practice of body tattooing faded out nearly fifty years ago. (Borgatti, 1983, p.10) After so long, tattoos were not required for membership into the palace. Now, tattoos are used in the palace to reflect the social and moral order (Aisien and Nevadomsky, 1995, 73). Margot Mifflin discussed the Bodies of Subversion: A Secret History of Women and Tattoo. (1997). In this book, Mifflin discusses Women as artists. Women as art galleries. Women as artworks (Mosher, 1997, p.144). This article works into the notion of Signaling Theory in a way that speaks to the sensory exploitation view. This is to say that the first thing to meet the eye is what is going to form the first opinion and the first judgment when it comes to first impressions. Barker and Tietjen (1990) note of the progress in times when they share the following quote regarding body art: Once associated with puberty, ceremonies and gender distinctions, facial tattooing is now practiced as an individualized assertion of ethnicity, maturity and femininity (p.58). Body Art as a Depiction or Imitation of The Exotic Other. The concept of body art as exotic was reviewed in the article entitled, Tattoo, Torture, Mutilation, and Adornment: The Denaturalization of the Body in Culture and Text. (Gell, 1996) This article discusses Gell s (1996) idea of the Europeans importing the admiration for the exotic. (p.396) He discusses advertisement for tattooing as an aid to seduction (144).This idea ties directly into the sensory exploitation, which arises in the discussion of the evolution of body art. A clear view of the history of body art is reviewed in this

24 Body Art-Gender Roles and Social Status, or Simple Storytelling? 24 discussion. Also in this discussion, cross-cultural meanings of the different forms of body art are revealed, and referred back to the cultural and historical review of body art. Both Semiotics, as well as the signaling theory are applicable when it comes to the exotic other. The body art discussed above creates a seductive meaning for viewers as well as signaling a certain call to action: encouraging freedom of expression. The literature reviewed in this study has provided a great wealth of history and opinions on what is communicated non-verbally through body art, tattoos or scarification. Based on the literature reviewed, there is a clear difference between body art as it relates to Semiotics, and body art as related to signaling theory. Much of the literature presented in this review relates to social status or gender roles as defined by body art. The later literature reveals that body art has become a way for an individual to express himself or herself, their thoughts, values, and beliefs as opposed to simply being related to the history of body art. Rationale This study is important because it sheds light on just how powerful non-verbal communication is. Much of the social judgment or the signs and signals that are exchanged in society today are completely unintentional, and do not come with a person s story or personal account. This study helps contribute to our understanding of the link between actions (both intentional and unintentional), and reactions. RQ1: Does body art in today s society still define gender roles and social status as much as the body is simply used as a platform for storytelling?

25 Body Art-Gender Roles and Social Status, or Simple Storytelling? 25

26 Body Art-Gender Roles and Social Status, or Simple Storytelling? 26 Chapter 3: Scope and Methodology Scope. For this study, the researcher used qualitative data to reach a conclusion about whether or not body art defines gender or social status as it has in cultural histories, or whether it is simply used as a platform for storytelling. Face to face interviews covered the response categories of religion, upbringing, history, perception, social status, and gender. All of these factors were taken into consideration regarding a person possessing body art themselves, as well as with a person s perception of those who have body art. The purpose of the face to face interviews was to evoke first-order interpretations from the point of view of those being studied, as well as second-order interpretations from the point of view of the researcher. (Neuman, 2006) Attitudes, beliefs, and opinions were covered with these topics. Characteristics, expectations, self-classification as defined by religion and knowledge, were also examined throughout this process. Six different demographics were covered in this study with a sample size of 45 people. 2 adults ages were interviewed, 5 adults ages 25-32, 2 adults ages 33-40, and 3 adults ages The demographics were split between those who possess some type of body art, and those who do not. The hope was for this process to make evident the different mindsets and perspectives that rise from these two demographics. It was projected that any gender or cultural differences would be apparent through this process. The participants of this study were recruited randomly in the researcher s workplace, which is a non-profit that works with youth in foster care. They were also chosen through random encounters on the street, and in a public library unplanned.

27 Body Art-Gender Roles and Social Status, or Simple Storytelling? 27 The respondents were forewarned that their responses would be regarded as strictly anonymous. They were treated with respect regardless of their personal beliefs, and encouraged to speak their minds and their own personal truths. In the workplace, the interviews took place in non-threatening spaces and environments with very little, to no outside noise or distractions so as not to promote any pressures. Qualitative interviews were the primary method of data collection in this study. Three different age groups consisting of both males and females of different cultures and social status, will be interviewed. All questions for this interview were asked face to face. All data was secured, and kept with the researcher at all times. The data collected from this study was analyzed by hand. In order to relieve further pressure, interviews were not recorded. Instead, hand written notes were taken by the researcher. Participants were also free to take notes on their own for the purposes of elaboration. The design of the interview was as follows: The researcher first sat the participant down, and explained the scope and foundation of this study. Definitions of the terms used in the interviews were explained in order to prevent confusion or misunderstanding during the interviews. Then a brief history of the researcher was given in order to ease apprehensions of participants. The researcher informed participants of her own possession of tattoos herself, if they asked, and assured interviewees that no judgment would be placed on them based on their beliefs answers to the questions. The interviewer then asked the participants race classification, place of origin or birth, whether the participant identifies as a male or female, and the participant s age bracket.

28 Body Art-Gender Roles and Social Status, or Simple Storytelling? 28 There was a conscious effort to exclude all slang, abbreviations, confusion, emotional language, double-barreled questions, leading questions, loaded questions, questions that are beyond respondents capabilities, false premises, asking about distant future intentions, double negatives, as well as overlapping or unbalanced response categories. Social desirability bias was avoided (Neuman, 2006). Methods. In this study, the researcher decided to follow a Qualitative Research design. A Quota Sampling will be used (Neuman, 2006, p.221). Face to face interviews took place in order to emphasize intimate firsthand knowledge of the research setting. These interviews were detailed examinations of cases that arise in the natural flow of social life. (Neuman, 2006) Why questions were included in this survey. This was for the exact reasons listed by Lawrence Neuman (2006). The goal was to discover a respondent s subjective understanding or informal theory (i.e., the respondent s own view of why he or she acts a certain way). The objective of the face to face interviews was to gather information, as well as, to bring light to the reasons behind why people obtain body art, or not, and how this affects them in today s society. All of the qualitative interviews took place in-person and included both open and closed-ended question. The interview questions are as follows: Instrumentation 1) Do you feel that religion played a part in whether or not you possess body art? Why not or in what ways did it play a part? 2) Did your upbringing play a part in whether or not you possess body art? Please say a bit more about how your upbringing relates to whether or not you possess body art.

29 Body Art-Gender Roles and Social Status, or Simple Storytelling? 29 3) If you possess body art, did you know of much history of body art prior to obtaining it? a. If yes, how did you learn of or obtain this history? 4) Does your perception of someone change if they possess body art? 5) If you possess body art, how do you think people perceive your body art? a. Do you ever feel judged or discriminated against? b. Do you feel that your body art signals this? 6) Is body art a sign of social status for you? a. If it does, in what ways? 7) Do you feel differently about a person with body art depending on their gender? a. If so, why do you think this is the case? 8) What do you think is the one largest factor that contributed to you obtaining body art, or not?

30 Body Art-Gender Roles and Social Status, or Simple Storytelling? 30 Chapter 4: The Study Data Analysis. Extensive notes were taken during each interview, and the notes were transcribed immediately. An open coding process was used to allow comparison of the data. The data was reviewed once all interviews were completed in order to gather the overall feel of the study. Trends were sought out in the data, as well as extremities. The answers to the interview questions were placed into groups organized by gender, social status, and sub-categories such as male or female interviewee, age and race. Both abstract and complex, as well as concrete and simple constructs were recorded in this analysis. (Neuman, 2006, p. 182) Age and gender are the concrete constructs used in this study. The complex constructs in this study included religion, upbringing, history, perception, and social status. There was a 100% cooperation rate during this process. (Neuman, 2006, p.297) Rules of Correspondence. The following Rules of correspondence (Neuman, 2006, p.185) will be in place throughout each interview: Strong- If a person verbally states that four or more of the constructs effected opinion regarding body art. Medium- If a person verbally states that 3 or more of the constructs effected opinion regarding body art. Low- If a person verbally states that 2 or less of the constructs effected opinion regarding body art. Results of Study. The results of this study were determined with the use of empirical data, abstract ideas, and the relation of ideas and data. There were a total of 12 participants who were interviewed. 2 participants were in the age group of 18-24, 5

31 Body Art-Gender Roles and Social Status, or Simple Storytelling? 31 participants were in the age group, 2 participants fell in the age group, and 3 participants were in the age group. In the random selection of participants, there were no participants in the age group of Of those interviewed, 4 were males, and 8 were females. This could be a reflection of a few factors. It could reflect the very low male to female ratio in my work place, the demographics of those who frequent the public library as well as those who frequent the local Starbucks. There was only one Latina participant, 1 Asian participant, 1 Chinese and Caucasian participant, and 1 participant who classified herself as being Northern European. The largest number of participants, 5, identified as being Caucasian, and there ended up being 3 African-American participants. The results of the two largest groups, Caucasian and African-American, will be compared: African-American. African-Americans had less of an overall religious influence on whether or not they possessed body art. Their upbringing did play a part in whether or not they possessed body art. They mostly obtained piercings as a rebellious act towards their parents. There was no consistent perception of someone with body art. They never felt judged by or discriminated against due to possessing body art. Most did not see any social status when they viewed people with body art. There was no norm for the largest factor in obtaining or not obtaining body art. Caucasian. Four out of five of the Caucasian participants stated that religion did not play a part in whether or not they possess body art. Three out of five of the Caucasian participants stated that their upbringing did play a part in whether or not they possess

32 Body Art-Gender Roles and Social Status, or Simple Storytelling? 32 body art. Only one of the five participants admitted to knowing the history of body art prior to obtaining it. Three out of five of the Caucasian participants stated that their perception of someone with body art would change depending on the nature of the tattoo, as well as the placement of it. Only one of the Caucasian participants stated that they felt judged due to their possession of body art. Three out of five of the Caucasian participants stated that the possession of body art indicated some type of social status for them. Most of this had to do with expenses and wealth. Only one of the Caucasian participants indicated that she views a person with body art differently depending on their gender. Two out of three of the Caucasian participants stated that they obtained body art out of a desire to rebel. Male vs. Female. When grouped by sex, the following was found: Male: Only one of four male s decision to obtain body art was influenced by religion. Two of the males stated that their decisions to obtain body art were in some way influenced by their upbringing. Only one of the men had possessed any body art at all, and even that was now gone. This seemed to indicate some need for approval from the opposite sex. Only one of the males stated that his perception is definitely changed of those who possess body art. Two out of four of the males did not see any social status when they see those who possess body art. The others felt that it depends on gender, and race. None of the males felt differently about a person with body art depending on their gender. The males shared very different largest factors that contributed to them obtaining body art or not. These factors ranged from apprehensions, wanting to have something unique, fear, and simply having had moved past the need to experiment.