DRAFT July Factors Contributing to Fashion Trends in Local and Global Context Fashion Trend The Change of Fashion 41

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2 Content Page 6.1 Cultural Value and Fashion Design Concepts of Different Cultures The Evolution of Historical Western Costume in the 20th 3 Century National Costumes of East Asia & India Factors Contributing to Fashion Trends in Local and Global Context Fashion Trend The Change of Fashion Fashion Designers Exploring a Career in Fashion Design Beliefs and Style Total Image for Fashion Design The Nature of Fashion Image Major Fashion Styles Use of Materials Use of Fashion Accessories 68

3 6.1 Cultural Value and Fashion Clothing has been an integral part of human life since prehistoric time. Throughout history, clothing has provided adornment, modesty, protection, identification and status. It has also reflected the change of our geographical, social, political, economical and technological development. Clothing has also played important roles in different historical and cultural events. All these different aspects also in turn contribute to the design, styling, colour or silhouettes of clothing worn by people. Customs dictate what is deemed acceptable by a society, religions and laws play a role by determining what colours and styles are allowed. For instance, for ancient Roman, tyrian purple could on be worn by Roman senators. In China, only the Emperor could wear golden yellow. In Hawaii, only high-ranking Hawaiian chiefs could wear feather cloaks and palaoas or carved whale teeth. Until now, the Amish continue to wear simple styles and dark colours that reflect their religious believes. They adopt a very plain style of clothing to show that they do not conform to worldly standards. The Amish do not believe in violence because belts and buttons were prominent features of military uniforms in the 18 th century. Most Amish men still do not wear belts or buttons on their coats. Moreover, historical and political events have had strong influence on the development and adaptation of fashion silhouettes. People responses to events that take place around the globe have often been reflected in fashion. During the Second World War, popular silhouettes at the time were mostly narrow because of fabric rationing. Another reason is that women s fashion designers at the time appropriated details of work and military uniforms as women themselves mobilized as the domestic workforce to replace men who had been sent to war. Besides, nylon stockings were willingly sacrificed to serve the patriotic cause and women resorted to painting vertical stripes on their legs to simulate the seams of sheer hosiery. After the end of the war, demand for nylon stockings was greater than ever and women reveled in the twenty-yard gathered skirts of Christian Dior s New Look fashions, abundance of fabric bursting from tiny waists into voluminous folds. In the 60s, space travel captured the imagination of the public as National Aeronautics and Space Adminstration (NASA) strove to put a man on the moon. This excitement was reflected in many designers fashions from that decade. Throughout history, people of all cultures have adorned themselves. Apart from its practical function as covering and protection, clothing has served to distinguish people socially, economically, and culturally. Modes of dress distinguished monks 1

4 from peasants from kings. Before the advent of machines, fashion was exclusively limited to the elite few who could afford to have beautiful clothing made for them by professional clothing artists; in this regard, it served as a means of expression for the rich and noble and a socioeconomic indicator for everyone else. Irish fisherman traditionally wore sweaters knitted in patterns representing clan and home (Siegel,1999 & Eliso Dee Co, 2000). On the contrary, technical influence of textile production during the Industrial Revolution, which created the expanding range of qualities and prices of fabric, and socially leveling and political change after the French Revolution engendered a fashion industry that provided choices of clothing to all classes of society (Bernire, 1989). Textile production was one of the driving forces generated by the Industrial Revolution. Some occupations require unique styles of clothing that may date back many centuries. Ministers, priests and other clergy members usually wear special clothing for conducting religious services. Judges wear a traditional black robe in the court. These special robes or shawls visually identify the person s role. And also, special colours and styles of clothing are worn for special occasions. Many brides in the West wear a traditional white wedding gown with long veil. University graduates usually wear long robes and mortarboard hats with tassels to receive their diplomas. Every day people make conscious decisions about the way how they want to present ourselves through clothing. Fashion exists as a means of creating an outward appearance that reflects something about the individual, whether it is identification with a cultural movement such as hip hop, a economic status such as a professional executive or a personal preference. The clothes that people wear relate their bodies and personalities to things around them and are extremely personal systems of identity that they construct with deliberation and care. Thus, fashions are a language that communicates self-identity and group identity with instant impact. Sometimes, people buy clothes and wear them in combinations that are deliberately or subconsciously contrived to convey either true or false impressions of ourselves to others. Some of the personal characteristics that they wish to reveal or hide including their age, sexual orientation, size, shape, economic or marital status, occupation, religious affiliation, self-esteem, attitudes and importance. In theatres and films, costume designers actively manipulate the symbolic meaning of clothing by loading the characters with items that they recognise as typical of various occupations and attitudes. A wide range of stereotypes has evolved in this way (Sue Jenkyn Jones, 2002). It is the job of fashion designers to experiment with identity and appearances 2

5 through clothing. They must offer designs that allow people the opportunity to project their own individualism. In modern societies, there are no laws to restrict how people wear. Instead, the cost of a garment affects more individuals purchases. For instance, the rich are more likely to be able to afford exclusive and luxurious styles. Indeed, economic factors influence the kind of styling, fabrics, silhouettes, quality and quantity of garments any given consumer may purchase. Technology plays its part through the development of new fabrics and new methods of construction, which in turn enhances the quality and structure of fashion style. Today, the fashion industry is international. Hundreds of thousands of styles can be purchased in various fashion boutiques at every price level and in different standard sizes. With a huge variety of clothing available to almost everyone, what people wear today is much more of a personal choice than an economically or socially driven necessity Design Concepts of Different Cultures Fashion is a mirror of the times. It reflects a given culture at a given point in time. Historical costume has showed the details about the lifestyles of people from various past cultures. Research into the history of particular cultures and designer s work can show how the visual appearance and function of a garment have changed over the years, help understand why fashion design has changed, raise awareness of social, political, economic and technical factors such as changes in attitudes and tastes. A better understanding in historical costumes can help predict the way how fashion might develop in the future. Understanding the meaning of fashion helps explain how these transformations happen. Fashions have changed very quickly throughout the 20 th century The Evolution of Historical Western Costume in the 20 th Century Each period has had a characteristic style that sets it apart from other times. Some styles became fashionable even though they were uncomfortable or unsafe. For instance, in the beginning of the nineteenth century, women were considered inferior to the male. They were expected to wear impractical design of corset to prevent physical movement. They were cinched in so tightly that they could hardly breathe. Many factors influence what styles of clothing are being worn by people. Economic 3

6 factors influence the fabrics, styling and quality that are popular or available at a given time. Technology plays its part through the development of new materials and new methods of construction. Global events, music video, movie and celebrities have had a great influence on fashion in the twentieth century. Film stars, entertainers and models ranging from Jean Harlow and Marilyn Monroe to Twiggy and Madonna have all inspired fashions. Furthermore, as internationally well-known celebrities, Jacqueline Kennedy and Princess Diana had a sense of style that influenced the fashion industry. Even fitness videos have popularised certain fashion style. An example of such phenomenon would be the sporty look during the 80s. The evolution of fashion styles and the role of famous designers help to understand the fashion changes and trends over the last century. (A) 1900s 1910 La Belle Epoque (i) Background It was an era of great extravagance and ostentation. People spent beyond their incomes. More money was spent on clothes. In France and the United Kingdom, the atmosphere was very similar. Since women s role was inferior to that of men. Women had to make themselves beautiful because femininity was a symbol of middle-class status; therefore, clothes were used to signify the particularities of social life in minute details. In the Edwardian era, styles for women were intensely feminine and elegant. The whole body was concealed from ears to feet. The bosom was forced forwards and the hips slanted backwards to form a S shape. The shoulders were extended by the rounded leg-o-mutton sleeves. (ii) Influences on Fashion During the nineteenth century, fashion evolved and changed slowly. The twentieth century, in contrast, brought constant changes. At no other time had fashion designers been so conspicuous. Important influences on fashion included movies, television, the Second World War, youth culture and the women s movement. As society became more developed, the way that clothes looked became more important than the protection that they provided. In fact, clothing was considered an art form in some societies. 4

7 (iii) Styles for Women At the beginning of the twentieth century, the period from 1895 to 1918 can be divided into two distinct periods in Europe. These are La Belle Epoque (the beautiful period, , also known as Edwardian era, ), when life seemed good and full of promises, and the period from 1914 to 1918, when western nations were plunged into the tragedy of the First World War. The clothing worn during each of these two periods reflected the sensation of each period. Thus, the clothes of La Belle Epoque, especially women s wear was elegant, grandeur and extravagant, while wartime clothing was drab and functional. During La Belle Epoque period, France was the leader of women s fashion. Women s garments became more tailored. The bust-line continued to protrude and the waistline was still controlled by the corset. These facts, together with the forward stance exhibited, prompted the style to be known as the S band shape because the body resembled the letter S. Since the rich led a full social life, attending balls, dinner parties, weekends in the country and many sporting occasions such as horse racing, sailing and shooting, these activities presented wealthy people with a lot of opportunities to expose their fashionable clothes suited to both formal and casual occasions. For instance, women s dresses were long and full skirted and they often had bustles, which emphasised the hips and used vast quantities of lightweight fabrics such as silk. Figure 6.1 (iv) Accessories for Women Hats were trimmed with enormous birds feathers and ribbons, etc. The look is shown in Figure.6.1 The total effect was graceful and feminine but was fairly uncomfortable to wear. Women were cinched in so tightly, owing to the fact that corsets were needed to achieve the look. At first, the corset was fairly straight the bosom was forced out and the waist pulled in. Ultimately, it took on a new line, the S band. 5

8 The bust, petticoats and bodices were padded or lined with starched flounces to assist in achieving the ideal S shape. The line was made famous by the drawings of the America illustrator, Charles Dana Gibson; it therefore became known as the Gibson Girl look. (v) Technological Influence In addition, the invention of the automobile provided a new challenge for fashion designers in the early 20 th century. Special designs were worn by both drivers and passengers in convertibles, with hats and veils being used to provide protection against the wind and dust. Therefore, the invention of the automobile called for an appropriate costume and the dustcoat was born. Roads were dry and dirty, so women wore dustcoats to protect their garments. To further fight the dust, women wore boots, goggles and large hats with veils to cover their faces. Life began to move at a faster pace with many new inventions such as the telephone, electric light and the automobile that gave people more luxury and freedom. The new two-wheeled cycle was the craze of the time. Amelia Bloomer designed a practical outfit for the avid cyclist consisting of a tunic dress worn over loose trousers gathered at the ankles. Later, this was revised into a split skirt with gathers under the knee, called the Bloomers. This was a time when people generally spent more money than they had, looking for fun in life with little thought for the future. Although some women were fighting for equal legal rights, most women were still greatly influenced by traditional attitudes, which required theme to look beautiful and the obedient to their husbands. (vi) Styles for Men Men s dress of the time moved towards more informal looks for everyday wear and travel. During La Belle Epoque period, England was the leader of men s fashion. Meantime, the three-piece suit for gentlemen was introduced: men wore frock coats, so called because of their flared, skirt-like shape and top hats for formal occasions during this period. (vii) Decline of the Edwardian Silhouette The fashionable hourglass silhouette belonged to the mature women with ample curves and full bosom. The S band health corset set the line for fashion conscious women until The corset was too tightly laced at the waist and so forced the hips back and the drooping mono-bosom was thrust forward in a pouter pigeon effect creating an S shape. Women seemed to be making a clear statement that they 6

9 deserved and wanted more independence and freedom in future. (B) 1910s 1920 A Time of Change (i) Background After Russo-Japanese War in 1904, Russia was defeated by the oriental country. The West was shocked by the news and began paying attention to the East. French designer Paul Poiret, intrigued by the costumes of the oriental and Russia, drew most of his inspiration from these sources. He initiated the corset reform: relaxed the waist and moved the bust back to its natural habitat. With the invention of railways and motor cars, people were able to travel longer distance. In order to move in an easier way, the hourglass silhouette had stepped aside to give way to looks that were more natural. The new look facilitated the movement of women. There was a fundamental change in women dress. Rigid bodices and bell-shaped skirts were abandoned in favour of soft drapery. Skirts became narrower at the hemline. (ii) Cultural Influences After 1910, fashion changed considerably. The Ballet Russe and in particular the bright, vivid colours and exciting shapes of Bakst s ballet dancer costume designs set a new trend. This, together with the influence of the French designer Paul Poiret, caused a wave of enthusiasm for orientalism Japanese, Russian, Chinese and Indian features were combined with the classical and draped features of Ancient Greek and Roman costume to make clothes which were totally different. Figure 6.2 (iii) Styles for Women One of the most important changes was the disappearance of corset. The hourglass figure continued to be in style but without the S shape or the protruding busts. Paul Poiret designed the hobble skirt, named because it was so narrow that the wearer could only take very tiny steps. Skirts became so narrow at the hem that it was difficult for a woman to put one foot in front of the other. (see Figure 6.2). In order not 7

10 to split the skirt, Poiret invented a restraining strap to be worn around the ankles. The skirt presented a charming and delicate effect, similar to that of the Japanese geishas. There was also a change in elegant and formal wear, which became much more casual. Sweaters like those today with high and close-fitting turtle neck or V neck became fashionable along with cardigans and jackets. (C) First World War - ( ) (i) Background Before the First World War, women s clothes were designed more for appearance than for practicality. Dresses had long skirts with narrow hemlines. During the war, women entered factories, farms, hospital and shops. As a result, more practical fashions developed. Luxurious and enjoyable attitudes to life and fashion were altered dramatically by the First World War ( ). While men were away fighting in the war, women took over their jobs at home. Women worked on farms and in factories, drove ambulances and generally kept services running. One consequence of this was that fashions became practical and drab. Clothing was dictated more by necessity than fashion. Many men wore uniform and women wore hardwearing and practical clothes because they took over jobs previously done by men. These conditions influenced fashion even after the war was over. (ii) Styles for Men In men s wear, it is difficult to describe men s general fashion as this period of time as most men were involved with the war. The uniforms that they wore showed features from other ages which were typical of military clothing. Uniforms were practical and functional for the battlefield but more elaborate for ceremonies. Because factories were busy making products for the war effort, fewer non-essential items were manufactured. Since the raw materials needed for other clothes were either restricted or unavailable, men tended to wear their uniforms even when they were on leave. People had to make do and mend, which means repairing their old clothes until they were too worn to be of any use. It was also common for home furnishings such as pillowcases to be converted into garments. 8

11 (iii) Styles for Women In women s wear, designers like Coco Chanel popularised chic, mannish stylessuch as jersey with new fabrics. She changed her designs during the war period not only due to shortages but also because a style of new and modern women was emerging. The new social roles of women which they had adopted during the war period gave them the confidence to dress. Chanel adapted men s sailor jackets and pullovers for women to wear and, at the end of the war, introduced dresses and suits made from jersey fabrics. Her comfortable, simple shapes and lines in easy-care knits were so popular that she became famous for casual and sporty looks. Trousers were a practical kind of wartime garment, suitable to be worn both in the factory and on the farm. Since women had to keep the country running, they became less concerned with looking feminine huge, sack-like coats, overalls with unflattering trouser bottoms and military shaped jackets were all worn at the time. The mannish coats and sturdy boots worn by women in the American Auxiliary Corps were popular. During and at the end of First World War, the barrel silhouette came in. It was a baggy dress and jacket combination that made women look large in the chest. One important feature of women s clothing during the wartime was that hemlines were moved upwards. Women wore their skirts shorter than before, this revolutionary shortening of skirts revealed both the ankles and the lower legs. A flared skirt in around 1917 was eight inches off the floor it looked smart and allowed greater freedom of movement than before. (iv) The Peace Era: After the war, people were generally happy to see things go back to normal and celebrate their relief. After the First World War, this spirit of celebration affected the production and design of clothing; fashion took a revolutionary, happy and youthful turn to match the new optimism of peacetime. Women were involved in this revival of fashion interest goods which had once been rationed became more available and women wished to look especially attractive for men who came back from the war. Furthermore, women had become more active after going through the above mentioned social changes. After the war, hobble skirts were considered too confining and this style disappeared eventually. Looser garments such as middy blouses with sailor collars and sweaters were worn. Women also participated in sports, using bloomers as gym costumes. 9

12 (D) The 20s - Flapper Age (i) Background After the First World War, there was a change in culture, women were largely self-supporting since the balance between the sexes had been altered. Most of them completed their tertiary education; the war had made women financially independent and they wanted to be treated equally. This in turn helped in building up their confidence to dress more boldly. The development that affected society included the general use of motor cars and the rapid expansion of the aviation industry. As a result, functional and simple designs were needed for traveling conveniently. In fashion, women did not want to return to their former way of life or dress. Clothes became shorter and less fitted for both comfort and practicality. There was a demand for less class-conscious and youthful styles. At this time, silk stockings were worn and shoes became important accessories. The 20s was a time of great change in Europe. It began in an atmosphere of joy and optimism, giving rise to the phrase The Roaring Twenties but ended in severe depression during After the First World War, there was great general interest attending to entertainment such as theatres, cinemas, night clubs and dance halls. Women had many opportunities to wear beautiful clothes since many men had died in the war that women needed to look very attractive in order to attract the attention of their male counterpart. (ii) Technological Developments In addition, a number of developments affected society as a whole in the 20s. These developments included the general use of motorcars, rapid expansion of air travel, introduction of radio to almost every household and commencement of television broadcasting in A sense of internationalism arose and was spread by easier travel and the media. (iii) The Desire for Change The war had made women more financially independent. The balance between the sexes had altered because of the war and firms were forced to employ more women. From this time onwards, more women had gained higher education and gone to universities. The women s movement had also demanded the right for women to vote. The dresses of the early 20s were casual, simple and practical. There was a demand for youthful feeling and rectangle silhouette, a look which was made popular by 10

13 designers like Patou and Chanel. Furthermore, the glamorous clothes worn by famous actresses and actors had an increasing impact on general clothing styles in the 20s and 30s. As more people went regularly to the cinema, movie stars began becoming fashion icons. The fashionable clothing style for women in the 20s changed very quickly from feminine to boyish. This trend of looking like a man was another way in which women showed that they wanted to be treated as men s equals. Smoking, drinking in pubs, riding the motorcycles or dancing energetically in nightclubs were signs of the new freedom of youth and optimistic spirit. (iv) Musical Influences Music and dance influenced fashion in the 20s. In 1922 the foxtrot dances, already popular in America, arrived in Europe. It soon affected fashion, with special shoes and dresses being designed for use on the dance floor. The biggest dance influence on fashion was the Charleston, which in 1926 started a trend for tubular, sequined and net-covered short dresses and drew viewers attention to the legs of women. The flapper, also called the Garconne style, was a fashion style on dresses with dropped waist, at the same time straight and loose. These dresses were usually worn with long pearl necklaces and bobbed hair. Undergarments that went with this style included panties, teddies camisoles and brassieres that flattened the bust for an even more masculine and tubular effect. Flappers applied cosmetics and eye makeup freely for a dramatic effect and wore a headband around their foreheads, usually with a feather in front. Skirt length was the shortest in history and the knees were rouged. Silk stockings were the rage; they were rolled down just above the knee. Figure 6.3 Shapely legs, a curved neck, slender arms and a lively, intelligent face became the desirable look during the 20s. Skirts were finished at the calf, waists were lower than before, reaching hip level and neither the bust nor the hips were emphasised. Flatteners were used to disguise a woman s curves. This look is shown in 11

14 Figure.6.3. (v) Hairstyles for Women Furthermore, short hairstyles were popular throughout the 20s. Due to the necessary wartime practices, it had become desirable to have short hair. Early looks included the Eton crop and the boyish Garconne cut. Such hairstyles went well with the cloche hat which was fashionable at the time. Modeled on the lines of a soldier s tin helmet, the cloche was usually made out of beige felt. (E) The Depression Struck (i) Background The depression struck in 1929 was a result of the Wall Street Crash. During this period, stock value in New York dropped dramatically. The problems of the American money market also cast a gloom over Europe, with most of the 30s being known as the Depression. (ii) Economical Influences Ultimately, the depression brought about the classic styles in suits and dresses, clothing that would last a long time and stay in style. Separate skirts and blouses were a highlight. A white blouse became a must in any wardrobe. The Depression struck in 1929, the unsure economic times also spawned the longer and uneven handkerchief hemline, a reflection of the shaky economy. Home sewing was at an all-time high since many women could not afford to buy garments. The political and economic development of the West reached a low point in the 30s. (iii) Styles for All Throughout this period of restlessness and change, there was a lack of direction and a severity in men s wear together with a return to less imaginative women s wear. Partly because there were fewer jobs during the Depression, society encouraged women to return to their traditional role of being wives and mothers. The general drabness of clothing was relieved to an extent for men by sports clothing and casual wear. 12

15 (F) The 30s - The Era of Natural (i) Background The 30s was being known as the period of Depression, an economic crisis which had a strong and lasting effect on both society and fashion. For many people, a great deal of wealth was lost and they had to accept a much lower standard of living. A kind of man-made fibre, rayon, became widely used. It was a cheaper substitute for silk and it provided a soft, draped, long and natural shape at the time of Depression. Natural shapes created by wearing corsets, which made the waist smaller, were preferable. Skirts were often made with godets or pleats, which started below the knee. (ii) Styles for Women Women s fashions in the 30s moved away from the boyish, brash styles of the 20s towards a more romantic and feminine silhouette, hemlines in the 30 s went down and down again. The fashionable silhouette emphasized, rather than disguised, a women s natural shape, featuring a narrow waist and high shoulders. To draw attention to the small waist measurement, the new fashion led to the revival of corsets, which were used to help make the waist smaller. The look is shown in Figure 6.4. Backless garments appeared in evening wear as well as bathing suits. Long bias-cut gowns were popular for evening parties, a style popularized by actress Jean Harlow. Streamline was the term for this decade due to the way how the shape was seen in the women s thin bodies, tight garments and art deco jewelry. Apart from evening wear, the 30s saw the waistline rise and women sought a long, thin look. Wide slacks known as the beach pajamas were introduced by Chanel as beachwear and for informal dinners. They were worn with loose, short coats and large floppy-brimmed hats. Figure 6.4 Women s skirts were flared, sleeves puffed and shoulders padded to exaggerate the figure. Clinging materials were used on the top half of the body with necklines draped in a flattering way. The cut of dresses was very distinctive. For instance, cloth was frequently cut on the bias, which helped achieve a figure-hugging effect and gave flowing lines to the shirts. 13

16 Skirts were often made with gussets or pleats, which started below the knee. They were attached to dress bodices by means of slanted or diagonal seams instead of being joined at a definite waistline. Attention was drawn to evening and beachwear that emphasised the back. Backless evening gown and soft slim-fitting day dress became popular. Bathing suits became more popular due to the increasing emphasis on a sun-bronzed, healthy look and a slim figure. Two-piece suits that consisted of dark shorts above the knee were introduced while low-necked tops were worn for sporting events and swimming. Another favorite garment was the ready-to-wear suit. These suits were particularly popular at the time the emergence of this style set the fashion for most of the pre-second World War period. There was a great contrast between day and evening wear. The severe, tailored daytime suits showed the change from the boyish to the Venus silhouette, which was displayed to best effect the evening wear of the period. The evening silhouette was curvaceous and sensuous with attention focused on the back and bottom. Low-necked, ballet-length dance dresses were worn with ribbon tied tango shoes, creating a general impression of femininity. (iii) Hairstyles for Women Boyish hairstyles were out of fashion in this period. Along with the new shapely, curved silhouette, women chose full, wavy hairstyles. Hair was generally worn longer than that in the 20s and film stars of the time encouraged a fashion for permed, bleached hair. Young women usually went hatless while older women wore a variety of headwear. Hats or berets were sometimes tipped to one side and might be tied with a veil. (iv) Influence of Art Movements Fashion has incorporated with the ideas of different art movements. The most important and innovative designer was Elsa Schiaparelli. She combined her talents with those of fine surrealist artists to create looks which were comical and creative. She also made use of technical innovations such as man-made fibers when others preferred pure natural fibers. Some of Schiaparelli s works included more amusing designs such as hats that looked like shoes, gloves with finger nails attached on the outside and a famously elegant gown decorated with a lobster. (v) Styles for Men Conversely, men s wear remained conservative and informal and many layers of clothing were worn. Indeed, winters were much colder in Europe in this decade. In 14

17 order to keep warm, men were covered up in their overcoats, shirts, suits, hats and scarves. Raincoats with military-style epaulettes were popular outdoor garments at the time. (G) 1940s - The Padded Look Age (i) Background The Second World War began in 1939 and ended in During the war, there was a shortage of fabric because so many textiles were being used for military uniforms and equipment. As a result, variety of styles became slimmer and shorter skirts became fashionable. Nylon stockings were almost impossible to get. Many women entered the workforce; they worked in offices and factories, replacing those male workers who were in the armed forces. Slacks and jumpsuits became the standard work apparel for female factory workers and female office workers wore the tailor-made business suits. Fashion had hemline back to the knee level. This emphasized the natural curve of bodies with had girlish look, simple in nature and shoulder pads were used to give wider shoulder. When the war ended there was a reaction, led by the French designers, against wartime styles. They made use of the greater availability of materials to create feminine full-skirted silhouettes. (ii) Wartime Influence The Second World War brought along many changes to fashion. One of these changes was that the fashion technique of mix & match was introduced. The early 40s was a time of turmoil throughout Europe. Wartime again took its influence on fashion. These influences were similar to those that were experienced during the First World War. For instance, shortage of raw materials that led to simple styles being worn. Clothes became practical and hardwearing once again as women went back to work in factories and on farms while men were away fighting. The war brought shortages, making rationing of most goods necessary. This affected the cut and style of clothes. The rationing of cloth meant that women s dresses and skirts became closer fitting and Figure

18 hemlines rose to knee-length in order to save fabric. Utility clothing was ordered by the British government to help control the quality and price of clothing. Utility clothes were conservative and simple, using the least possible material during the production process. This style is shown in Figure 6.5. (iii) Padded Look for Women The Second World War brought many changes to women s attitude and clothing. The occupation of France forced the great fashion houses of Chanel, Dior and Vionnet to stop operating temporarily. Women reflected a uniform look with broad padded shoulders, short skirts and nipped-in waistlines. Because of the hard times inflicted by the Second World War, any show of wealth or flamboyancy in stylish clothing was considered tasteless. (iv) Shortage of Material Owning to the widespread shortages, attempts were made to find substitutes for scarce items. For instance, painted lines on the leg or nylon stockings were worn when silk stockings were scarce. Ankle socks were another substitute. The fashionable look was adapted to fit in with wartime restrictions. USA, France and Britain each had austerity regulations that controlled national spending. A more direct influence on women s clothing in Britain, however, was the clothes rationing in 1941, which led to the establishment of dress restrictions and utility clothes in In 1942, the United States Government passed Law L-85, which restricted the manufacture of clothing with a maximum of 3.5 yards of fabric allowed on the manufacturing of each piece of garment. Ruffles and pleats were forbidden, only one pocket per blouse or shirt was allowed. A maximum of two-inch hems and the widest part of the hem of a dress could not exceed 72 inches. Hemlines rose and leveled off just below the knee. No metal fastenings because metal was needed for the war effort. For men s wear, several things were removed. For instance, cuffs, vests, patch pockets, cloth belts and pleats. (v) Styles for Women Causal trousers became popular since they saved women the trouble of wearing stockings under their dress, which were very difficult to find during the war. Causal trousers were usually worn with a headscarf and an American military style jacket which was adapted for civilian use. Headscarves were a kind of very useful accessory during wear time as hairdressing was a luxury. Given that headscarves 16

19 covered the whole head, they hid untidy hair. The military look in this period was softer than that in the First World War. There were, for instance, no epaulettes used. Instead, leather for handbags and footwear and various synthetic materials replaced wool. (vi) The Emergence of American Fashion Paris was occupied by the Nazi during wartime. Many couturiers left while others ceased their business until the end of the era. European fashion houses experienced a lot of difficulties during this period as a result of the suspension of trade with enemy states, austerity regulations and war priorities. This gave a stimulus to casual wear from America and a number of talented American designers emerged when Paris was suspended both socially and economically during the war. The influence of America both in fashion and in general culture had increased. Hollywood films and film stars became the major influence in fashion. After the war ended, European cities had no stylish restaurants or grand parties to stimulate elegance. A tax on luxury goods also discouraged people from spending money. (vii) French Fashion Revival In 1946, French women s wear featured tight waists, round hip, wrapped coats, clinging shirts and layers of collars. Eveningwear was romantic with some evening dresses having skin-tight bodices and skirts that consisted of yards of tulle. Fringes, embroidery, feathers, braid, beadings and fur were used as a reaction against the plain style of dressing of the war years. The result was that Paris was again renowned as the fashion capital of the world. (H) The New Look (i) Background Fabric restrictions during the Second World War resulted in tailored styles with padded shoulders for both men and women. After the liberation of war and more fabric became available, everyone hastened to discuss the fashion of the occupation as an aberration. Young women were hungry for romantic dressing. Something should be in contrast with wartime austerity to show that the war was really over. Therefore, the Dior s new look at the time could satisfy their needs. 17

20 (ii) Birth of the Dior New Look In 1947, after the Second World War ended, a dramatic event occurred in the fashion industry. French designer Christian Dior, after reopening his house in Paris, introduced a style called the New Look which was also called the Corolle Line. Since the war was over, the men had returned home and the New look was featured natural round shoulders, small waistline and a longer, very full skirt as shown in Figure 6.6. The hemlines fell to just above the ankle and skirts were incredibly full. Yards and yards of fabric were used as well as petticoats with crinoline and flounces of lace. The shoulder pads were dropped with a thud; soft shoulder replaced the precious squared mannish silhouette. The bust line was accented; the waistline was high and cinched in again. After the uniformity of the years and the end of Law L-85, women happily accepted the New Look. That was the only time in history that hemlines literally changed overnight. When the war ended, there was a reaction against wartime styles. The New look created a sensation because of its dramatic lines and extravagant use of fabric contrasted so sharply with the wartime fashions. Figure 6.6 (iii) The Peace Era By the 50s, people had, in general, recovered from the horror of the Second World War and the post-war shortages in the late 40s. There was a wise-spread spirit of optimism as people looked forward to the future and valued some new-found stability. The results of such attitudes included the baby boomer of the time and greater interest in the fashion industry. (I) The 50s - Let the Good times Roll (i) Background The 50s was a time of greater prosperity; many changes in lifestyle took place during 18

21 this decade. Television became very popular, ready-to-wear clothes became the norm and the growing numbers of young people became a major focus of the fashion industry. In this period, people advocated freedom, they needed a more comfortable style, so the corsets were disposed. (ii) Influence of Media Events and Celebrities This was an era of fun in women s fashion. The continuous American influence on clothing was maintained through film stars. Many actresses set fashion trends and extremes. Jayne Mansfield and Marilyn Monroe brought attention to the full bust-line with the help of the Merry Widow, an under garment that pulled the waist in and pushed the bust up. American actress Audrey Hepburn set the other extreme, making the undernourished look fashionable by pulling her hair back into a ponytail and wearing black leotards and ballet slippers. (iii) Styles for Women Christian Dior continuously brought about new fashion looks in the 50s. His designs included the A-line silhouette, also known as the trapeze dress, and the H-line dress, which was low-waist. The Y-line collection also dominated the fashion trend (Figure 6.7). Ladies skirts were full at this time. They used a minimum of four yards of fabric and were supported by crinolines and hoops. Casual trousers came in various lengths and had various names. Figure 6.7 Clam diggers and pedal pushers were common for sports and after-school wear. Gloves with different lengths and styles for different occasions were popular accessories. In the early 50s, sleeves were usually short or three-quarter in length. There was a large variety of collar types including the large-sized collars that covered the shoulders, high collars that covered the chin, rolled or tied ones with cravats. Skirts were with mid-calf length and often flared below the knee. Tight belts were worn to emphasize the waistline and hips. Cape-like coats with wide sleeves and sloping shoulders were worn. Stoles were often worn over suits and fur was commonly used 19

22 to edge collars and cuffs. (iv) Technological Influences Furthermore, advances were made in the field of art, technology and science. The Russians launched the first satellite and television became increasingly popular. With improved communications, new fashions spread worldwide. For instance, news from Paris traveling quickly to other fashion centers. (v) Birth of Ready-to-Wear Two distinct fashion groups emerged. The first group consisted of young people in their late adolescence and early twenties, who have become a powerful force in the fashion world due to their interest in clothing and the large amount of money that they have to spare. The fashion industry saw an opportunity to create and expand ready-to-wear market. Instead of conforming to the same style of clothing as their parents, young people wore clothes which reflected their own lifestyle and hobbies. Tthis group tended to go directly against mainstream fashion trends and at times dressed in dark, plain ready-to-wear to express their individuality. (vi) Revival of Haute Couture The second group was the established, couture fashion group, which in this period demanded sophisticated look and desired a well-groomed, luxurious appearance. Christian Dior was one of their favorite designers and he built on his successes from 1947 onwards till his death in Yves Saint Laurent succeeded Dior as chief designer at the house of Dior and began to set new fashion trends himself. Other revolutionary looks and favorite designers at this time were Balenciage, Givenchy and Chanel. (vii) The Emergence of Casual Wear During the period of mid to late 50s, young fashion was influenced by performers such as Elvis Presley, James Dean and Marlon Brando. Their influence was seen in breaker Figure

23 jackets, white T-shirts, denim jeans, dungarees and pompadour hairstyles. For whatever reason, young women adopted two-piece garments, either a skirt and sweater combination, excessively large shirt worn over a pair of cuffed jeans, tight sweater worn with a neck scarf tied casually at the throat and a full skirt which covered layers of starched and crackling nylon petticoats. The look is shown in Figure 6.8. On general fashion level, blue jeans became popular and polo necked jumpers were worn for informal wear instead of collars and ties. Long hairstyles became fashionable and frilled shirts similar to those worn in the late 18 th century were revived for evening wear in the late 50s. (viii) Styles for Men In men s wear, the 50s were known as the Man in the Gray Flannel Suit era, a term derived from a book by Sloan Wilson. The look for young men was Ivy League: button-down oxford shirts, oxford shoes, and narrow regimental ties. For men of all ages, the business uniform at that time was a narrow lapels gray sack-cut suit with striped tie, wing-tip oxford shoes and a gray fedora hat. (J) The 60s - Swinging Sixties (i) Background During the sixties, the world was in a period of instability. The Cuban Revolution had bought on the Cold War between the East and West. The Vietnam War made people hate warfare and the turbulence made. Some people hate society as a whole. The public s dissatisfaction was expressed through anti-traditional fashion styles. Apart from that, sexualism made people focus more on sex appeal. More portions of the body were exposed. Short miniskirts with tight boots and hippie style were in fashion from that decade onwards. Moreover, space travel captured the imagination of the public as science strove to put a man on the moon; this excitement was reflected in many designers designs. This was a time when menswear and womenswear are not separated. One reason was that this period saw the emergence of the unisex look, which featured clothing that could be worn by both men and women. Overall, the 60s and 70s were the time of action, violence, protest, rebellion, experimentation and counterculture. Dramatic events took place during these two decades. Dramatic changes in fashion trends occurred, new designers emerged and more countries began to exercise an influence on the fashion scene. In the early 60s, fashion in Europe displayed a nostalgic theme as young people revisited past fashion 21

24 for inspiration. They watched old movies that showed movie stars in swirling dresses and scarves, flowing fabrics and ostrich feathers. Calf length, wide shoulders and soft satin fabrics were popular. (ii) Influence of American Movies Meanwhile, the influence of American movies made blue denim jeans popular. They became increasingly accepted for daywear throughout America and Europe. They almost became the uniform of demonstrators protesting against various social evils such as the invention and further development of nuclear weapons. (iii) Influence of Celebrities Conversely, traditional fashion scene of the time was influenced by Jacqueline Kennedy, the wife of the President of the United States of America, who created clean-cut simplicity of her style which was accepted and copied by women of all economic levels all over the world. The Jackie Look consisted of either a rounded neckline Chanel-style suit or a dress with a short jacket. While dresses were often sleeveless, jackets sported three-quarter length sleeves year round. A-line skirts hit at, or just below, the knee and were worn with low-heeled pumps. Eveningwear featured high empire waistlines. Another significant Jackie style featured the bouffant hair style, pillbox hat and large buttons. The buttons were two inches in diameter and placed at the throat. (iv) New Silhouette of the Sixties For young women, the distinctive trend setter was famous London designer Mary Quant and her mini-skirt creation in Mini-skirts were adopted enthusiastically by young women throughout the West. It started a trend for panty-host instead of stockings and encouraged the wearing of PVC long boots. The look is shown in Figure 6.9. French designer André Courreges invented the finishing touch known as the white go-go boots. A shocking touch to fashion came at this time with Californian designer Rudi Gernreich s transparent blouses and topless bathing suits. Figure

25 (v) Technological Developments Create a New Wave of Fashion Beyond that, the 60s was a golden era for all technological materials, in particular, a boom period for synthetic fashions. Space travel captured the imagination of the public as science strove to put a man on the moon; this excitement was reflected in many designers designs. Man-made materials were considered avant-garde by couturiers and young anti-establishment boutiques alike. Plastic was used in clothing and accessories, form Paco Rabanne s 1966 dresses made from linked discs of coloured plastic, zippers made of plastic instead of metal and early fiber optics incorporated in a sleeve embellishment (Handley, 1999). Polyester was the fabric of the 70s and man-made fibers, pure or blended with natural fibers, are a matter of course today (Eliso Dee Co, 2000). (vi) The Emergence of British Fashion The 60s was a decade during which popular groups such as the Beatles and the Rolling Stones had great influence on the fashions and lifestyles of young people. London became an important fashion centre and places such as the Kings Road and Carnaby Street became the centre of the Swinging 60s. The Beatles visited America in 1964 and the British influence invaded American fashion as well as music. The art world was flooded with bold patterns, bright colours and optical prints including dots and stripes. This newly emerged type of modern art influenced the Mod fashion look, also known as the Carnably Street look, and was best expressed by British models Twiggy and Jean Shrimpton. (vii) Birth of the Unisex Look The boyish and unisex look became more common as the 60s progressed. Some women started to wear traditional male clothes including black, masculine-looking shoes, plaid jackets and trousers with contrasting waistcoats and fancy silk shirts. The boyish look was not confined to street fashion but was taken up by the top designers of the day. To the delight of women, French designer Yves Saint Laurent brought out a sophisticated look for women introducing the tailored women s pantsuit in The pantsuit brought comfort to women; a feeling that was not achieved with miniskirts. At first, pantsuits were not accepted for all occasions and women in pantsuits were not permitted in some restaurants and the situation finally changed. 23

26 (viii) Styles for Men Conversely, men in their turn softened their look; they wore their hair longer and made greater use of feminine details and fabrics, particularly for eveningwear. Formal men s wear of the 60s was strongly influenced by Italian designers but the youth rebellion had a strong effect on casual men s wear. The trend in causal wear was sloppy, anti-establishment look. Men wore their hair longer and suits and ties both disappeared. Bright colours also found their way into men s wardrobes. (ix) Variations of Fashion Hemlines In 1969, hemlines were uncertain. The mini, micro-mini, midi and maxi were all created by designers. Mixing of these lengths were considered fashionable; a mini skirt with a maxi coat or vest. Maxi coats and sweater coats were really practical in cold climates for mini skirt wearers. Many women were stuck to pantsuits until they made a decision: the mini remained in favour and what followed was the disappearance of midi and maxi. (x) Birth of the Hippie Style Political, social and economic problems emerged in this decade intensified when coming to the seventies. People protested against the government; thus, created a group called Hippie. People shared the Hippie attitude but they physically could not join them. As a result, they wore similar clothing so as to conform to them. The late 60s also saw the Hippie look for both women and men. Causal denim and hippie looks continued to be popular, again with a unisex theme. The Hippie dress was a throw back to the beatniks of the 50s. Their clothes consisted of patchwork tops, jeans, chambray shirts, decorated with paint, silver studs or embroidery (Figure 6.10). Bras were temporarily discarded. Although this way of dressing was very individualistic and causal, successful designers such as Bill Gibb, Zandra Rhodes and Figure 6.10 Laura Ashley incorporated some elements of the hippie style into commercial items. 24

27 (K) The 70s Boogie Nights and Polyester Days (i) Background The unisex fashion of the late sixties continued into the early seventies. Men and women wore the same styles with the same fabrics and colours. It became fashionable for women to wear pantsuits that were styled like men s suits and neckties. There was an increase in women working class who preferred to wear trousers at work and this became culturally acceptable. Trousers wearing of women made the division of class and gender seemed to be breaking. This led to women s movement against discrimination and the formation of unisex culture. On the contrary, youngsters also gathered to form a Punk Culture in London. They were unemployed and anti-government; this made the conservatists advocate Midi Dress to counter the cultural conflict. Most of the people had the consensus of a peaceful society without social strife and war; thus, they preferred simple and comfortable styles instead of vigorous and detailed dressing. Overall, the 70s was considered to be a period of excitement for the fashion industry. Many changes in fashion trends occurred, new designers emerged and more countries began to exercise their influence in the global fashion scene. (ii) Distinctive Street Fashion As the 70s progressed, new street style fashions emerged and the styles were extremely flexible. Stars such as Elton John and David Bowie and, subsequently, punk groups such as the Sex Pistols led street style fashion. The trend arose for coloured hair and spiky and slashed details on clothes. Some people took the haphazard and colourful aspects of unisex dressing and exaggerated them so that they were deliberately tasteless. This style was called glam rock and was adopted by several rock bands. They wore clashing colours, glittery fabrics, lots of make-up and shoes with enormous platform soles. Punk clothing was decorated and held together by pins, rings and studs; it started in London and inspired by punk rock bands and soon spread abroad. Punk was a threatening, unisex look worn mostly by teenagers and its aim was to shock. Punks painted angry slogans on Tee-shirts and baker jackets and ripped holes deliberately. They wore pins and rings through the ears and noses, dyed hair in vivid colours, wore pale face make-up and ringed their eyes in black. During this period, the hippie philosophy of peace and love, together with its 25

28 flower-power fashions was forgotten. Such position was replaced by hard-edged realism. Instead of protesting about broad social concerns such as pollution and nuclear weapons, people became more concerned about themselves. There was rising unemployment in the late 70s and fashions reflected the general mood of despondency. In contrast to this look, the romantic Edwardian look became fashionable in a new long length. Millions of Gunne Sax dresses by California designer Jessica McClintock were sold to women of all ages. The design was a very feminine, countrified style of dresses which consisted of long flounced skirt and high necked blouses in traditional floral print, worn with crocheted shawls. (iii) Styles for Women Women of the early 70s wore hot pants, a collaboration of the miniskirt and the pantsuit. Jeans were still popular; clunky platform shoes were the accessory of the day. Fashions that did gain widespread acceptance in the 70s was the wearing trousers, hot pants and pantsuits. They were the last breath of the outlandish look of the 60s. Although they had previously been thought suitable only for sports and causal wear, they now became acceptable for nearly any occasions. For eveningwear, trouser suits were popular, made up in softer and less masculine style than for daytime wear. Jeans were still popular but now they sported bleach spots, ombre, embroidery and tie-dye. Often vintage jeans were cut up and fashioned into a patchwork pair. By 1973, classic feminine styling was back for women. American designer Diane Von Furstenberg popularised the versatile jersey wrap dress. (iv) Styles for Men The dandy appeared in men s fashions. Men wore bright colours in shiny polyesters and cottons. In the early 70s, large butterfly bowties were popular as well as wide collars and wide neckties. Polyester went to the extreme in leisure suits, a two-piece suit for men. It consisted of slacks and a jacket featuring a large collar and topstitching. A bright floral shirt was typically worn beneath the jacket, without a necktie, with shirt collar rolled over the jacket collar. The look was causal. Some people considered the leisure suit to be men s fashions at its worst. 26

29 (v) Media Events and Celebrities The popularity of movies created popular looks. Saturday Night Fever spawned the disco look for both men and women. Grease popularised the look of the 50s including argyle sweaters and saddle shoes. Annie Hall inspired the baggy and layered look for women. Star Wars encouraged the wearing of capes, flat boots and metallic and lurex threads in fabrics. It is clear that one of the major changes over the 60s and 70s had been making fashion more available to the mass market; the elite couture element no longer necessarily led fashion. In addition, since the 70s, people have increasingly demanded quality and value, owing to rising standards of education and the growth of consumer power. The economic recession encouraged classic styles because women were less likely to spend a lot of money on fashion fads. Fashion is now required to be affordable, individualistic and versatile enough to be worn by a wide cross-section of people for a number of different occasions. (L) The 80s The Decade of Power Dressing (i) Background More and more women dreamt about being executives like men. They had yet to be accepted on equal terms in any of the higher echelons of employment, especially in management level. The power dressing made them look capable and presentable. Power dressing was advocated by a very popular TV programme during the eighties. People dreamt to act like the characters in the programme, so they made power dressing as fashion. Styles of power dressing featured broad, padded shoulders, big jacket, shinny materials, matching hats, tight skirt and high heel. Skirt lengths ranged from long to short. In the mid-eighties, there was aerobic-hit all over USA because people became more health conscious, thus they had maintained very well figures and could wear body conscious silhouette to show off their figures. (ii) Styles for Women In the 80s, the era of conspicuous consumption kicked off with a fairy tale wedding between Prince Charles and Lady Figure

30 Diana Spencer, a shy 19-year-old who, as the decade unfolded, blossomed into a confident fashion icon. Princess Diana set trends with her haircut, high ruffled collars, flat heeled shoes, hats gloves and delicate clean lines. First Lady Nancy Reagan also influenced the fashion market with her red colour gowns. Meanwhile, women all over the world became more confident as they marched into the workplace with linebacker shoulder pads firmly in place. The shoulders were of definite interest in the 80s with even more padding than in the 40s. Resurrected by American designer Norma Kamali, shoulder pads became once again popular. Kamali also made cotton fleece or sweat fabric fashionable. Proper dress for women executives was as important during the first half of the 80s as during the 70s but more colourful and exciting than the Molloy Clones of the 70s. American designer Liz Claiborne made her mark in the 80s because she met the needs of the working women. (iii) Media Events and Celebrities Videos and movies again influenced fashion. Actress Jane Fonda developed an exercise video and a line of exercise fashions. Jogging suits and running shoes became part of the fitness craze and the fashion of this decade. Spectators as well as spots participants were attired in the same clothing. Jennifer Beals in the movie Flash-dance inspired the trend of ripped sweatshirts and made body wear popular. Ultimately, the fitness craze of the late 70s brought a major change to the athletic clothing industry. Spandex was in; comfort and function were paramount. Men and women hit gyms, spas and athletic centres in droves creating a big market for athletic clothes that were not only functional but attractive and flattering. Lycra in bright colours worn with leggings and thick socks were pushed down to the ankles. It was the preferred fabric for aerobic exercises. Rock videos also influenced the fashions of the younger generations. Young viewers took note of the fashion trends of Cyndi Lauper, Prince, Boy George and Michael Jackson. Modanna took the pop music world by storm with her single Like a Virgin and suddenly cross pendants, lace lingerie, fitted busier and jewelry inspired apparel were all the rage. (iv) Fashion Designers of the Eighties The style of the 80s has been influenced by several different countries, namely Japan, Italy. Paris, British and America. American designers Calvin Klein and Gloria Vanderbilt became household names through the designer jean craze. A craze for 28

31 healthy living and sports inspired designers to design a variety of ranges of clothes in sweatshirt fabric that had previously only been used for sportswear. The tops with padded shoulders and narrow baggy trousers created inverted triangle silhouette, giving the impression of a lean and muscular body. In Europe, Armani set the fashion tone for professional women and the master tailoring of Italy. Lagerfeld and Lacroix rejuvenated the French Couture. (v) The Rise of Japanese Designers Japanese designers such as Yohji Yamamoto, Issey Miyake and Rei Kawakubo introduced skillfully-cut clothes; the loose fit and somber colours as well as the neutral multilayer look of which gained prominence in the early 80s and succeeded in changing the face of fashion. (M) The 90s From Casual to Minimalism (i) Background With the quick information flow during the 90s, fashion trend can be easily spread throughout the world. Women could wear what they liked. Different groups adopted different fashions and made their own styles and interests. As fashions changed very quickly and much more information was available, there were many different kinds of look. Many designers and each one has their own signature that distinguished himself/herself from the crowd and gained a significant position in the industry. Men s and women s fashions had become more natural in shape. At the same time, styles ranged from baggy pants to tight leggings, from oversized shirts to skinny tops. Fashion continued to change during this distinctive period. (ii) Styles for All The early 90s were plagued by recession but by 1997, Wall Street had recovered quite nicely and was enjoying its longest bull run in history. Fashion also experienced some extremes. First there was grunge, which was epitomised by combat boots paired with slip dresses. Next, the minimalist movement took off, created by the ready-to-wear designers like Helmut Lang, Calvin Klein and Jill Sander. Retro and sports were also great influences on fashion during the late 90s. Overall, the fashion trend has been toward more casual clothing. Both males and females are dressing less formally for work, travel and parties. Men, women and children wear blue jeans, sweatshirts and sneakers. Knits, denims, flannels and other casual fabrics are very popular. 29

32 6.1.3 National Costumes of East Asia & India The social environment influences the type of clothing being worn. A society is a group of individuals who live together in a particular area. A culture is the collection of ideas, skills, believes and institutions of a society at a particular time in history. Clothing can be a valuable clue to various cultures. The style of clothing that people wear the designs, the fabrics and the colours can tell you a lot about the way how the people of a given culture think, their heritage, values and believes. Throughout history, we found a lot styles of clothing are identified with a particular area or country. A sombrero reminds us of Mexico, a dragon embroidery qipao reminds us of China, a kimono reminds us of Japan, a fur parka reminds us of Alaska and cotton sari reminds us of India. Many cultures have their own unique style of dress or national costume. Most of these items of clothing have very practical beginnings. In some parts of the world such as China, Japan and India, people still wear distinctive native costumes as part of their every day dress. Being one of the earliest civilisations, China has a long history of clothing development. In the past several decades, traditional Chinese clothing styles have caught the eye of the West and have had an increasing influence on world fashion trends. Fashion imagery worldwide draws on many different cultural styles and designers are often inspired by traditional Chinese costume and decorative motifs. Since the 80s, famous Western designers have regularly incorporated traditional Chinese patterns and embroidery into their fashions. The creative results have won acclaim. Hybrid Chinese and Western style have set new trends in fashion. Recently, beside patterns and embroidery, the cutting and silhouette of traditional Chinese costume have added creative energy to fashions, an example of this phenomenon would be the Italian label Prada. Qi pao, the graceful and body-hugging dress, is one of the traditional Chinese styles that was developed early in the Qing Dynasty. Just like the Japanese kimono and Indian sari, qi pao is regarded from a Western point of view a national dress of China and it widely represents Chinese identity. China has a long history of development in clothing and started a code of dress as early as the Xia and Shang Dynasties ( BC) and this was used by rulers for identifying status and demonstrating authority. The system was strongest in the Zhou Dynasty ( BC): emperors, empresses, wealthy land owners and officials could all be judged by the number of patterns, the decorative motifs, the type 30

33 of colour and the general ornamentation of their costumes. Different costumes were also worn for different occasions. For the extreme and important fashion forms, emperors and empresses were naturally the leaders throughout Chinese history. The author of The Complete Costume History, Auguste Racinet defined the principal mark of rank in China as a button placed at the top of the official hat; the substance, size and colour of these buttons varied from that of the first-rank, first-class to that of the seventh-rank mandarin. The official costume comprised a robe embroidered with dragons and serpents. There were prescriptions concerning the colour of clothing. Yellow was the preserve of emperors, princes of the royal blood and those who had gained authorization from emperors. Red is the colour of the mandarins. Black, blue and violet can be worn by anyone. Finally, etiquette required that a man had to wear his boots and pointed hat when making or receiving a visit and held his fan in his hand. Chinese women have always been considered inferior to the male and have no civic status. In the old time, their feet were mutilated in childhood in order to make them a more or less prestigious object of trade. The Chinese adored the air of weakness and indecision imparted by bound feet from the 10 th century until When their wives come hobbling along, they compared their walk to the swaying of the willow in the breeze. (A) Historical Development of Chinese Costume Styles Throughout the long years of the Chinese history, Chinese people have created colourful and artistic styles of costumes. During the unification period (221 BC -220 AD), the Han people traded with minority groups of Chins as well as neighbouring countries. These costumes became more varied in design and more rich in colour because of trade, war and economic and cultural exchange between races. Han s economy and culture developed rapidly and China became strong and prosperous. The effect of trade could be seen in many Dynasties, especially when large-scale migrations involving millions of people emerged. They moved from the North to the Central Plains, which included the middle and lower reaches of the Yellow River. During this time, many Han people started wearing the Hu Fu (tartar costume). Hu Fu included an over garment with narrow sleeves and high leather boots for men and plain bodice, colourful skirt and headscarf for women. Hu Fu was characterised by its turned-down collar, front opening and tight sleeves, invariably a leather belt would be worn round the waist with several small ribbons hanging down. Nature also influenced the development of Chinese costumes such as birds and 31

34 other creatures gave inspiration for some very practical garments. For example, armour was made from small pieces of metal strung, together to form a protective coat. The shapes were like fish scales or tortoise shells and they were put on over thick waist coats. In the Sui and Tang Dynasties ( ), China was a unified and prosperous country. Clothing during this period became luxuriant. Liberal styles came to the fore, especially in women s garments, which were tailored to accentuate the lines of the body and even expose parts of it. The Tang Dynasty ( ) was the most prosperous period in China s feudal society: cultural exchange with foreigners from places such as Vietnam, Japan, India and Byzantium was developing. Women costumes of the Tang Dynasty reached a high level; the image style of this era drew particular attention to facial appearance and application of powder or even rough was common practice. Some women s foreheads were painted dark yellow and the dai ( a kind of dark blue pigment ) was used to paint their eyebrows into different shapes that were called dai mei ( painted eye-browns) in general. Some women painted their cheeks with motifs in shapes of, for instance, a moon or a coin and their lips were also rouged. However, during the years of Yuanho in the reign of Xuanzong, the system of costumes changed and women no longer applied red powder to their faces. Instead, they used only black ointment for their lips and eyebrows. The main costume for women in the Sui Dynasty and early Tang was still the small-sleeved short jacket and long skirt with waist fastened up under the armpit. During and after the heyday of the Tang Dynasty, sleeves became larger and larger and collars were of various types such as round, square, slanting straight or v-necked. In the late Tang period, the width of women s sleeves often exceeded four feet with the use of fine, sometimes transparent, fabrics to represent a bold attitude. The next Dynasty was Song ( ), with the ascendancy of the Confucian school of idealist philosophy in the Dynasty, a return to simplicity philosophy was observed. In terms of costume, a more natural and somewhat conservative style of costume was in style at the time. The imperial court even ordered women to dress in simple and subdued garments. Extravagance in dress was strictly forbidden, even for court ladies. Throughout the history of China, the changes from simple to complicated and back to 32

35 simple were observed. The sumptuous and revealing costume of the late Tang Dynasty was affected by public opinion in the Song Dynasty and there came a desire again for simplicity in dress. Styles of costume become reserved, conservative and less bright in colour during this period. The next Dynasties were Liao, Jin and Yuan ( ), established by minority tribes of Northern China. The economic and cultural exchanges that they conducted with the Han people were also reflected in their costumes. The cold climate and the Northern geography also influenced the clothing of these times. The Khitan people, favoured a tight-sleeved, round-collared robe, which was tied at waist with a silk band flowing down to the knees. Meantime, fabric designs were simple and somber colours such as dark-green, dark-blue and brown were preferred. A shirt of lighter colour was worn underneath and trousers tucked into high boots completed the outfit. Women wore a similar robe, sometime with a skirt below, though this shirk was concealed. Nuzhen people in the Jin period liked similar garments but more white was worn. Women chose dark purple or dark red jackets to wear with their skirts. Birds and animals such as deer were the favourite motifs for patterns of the Jin Dynasty. During the Yuan Dynasty, patterns of dragon and phoenixes were adopted from the Han people. The next Dynasty was Ming ( ), the general clothing for Ming women consisted mainly of gowns, coats, rosy capes, over-dresses with or without sleeves and skirts. These styles were imitations of the ones first seen in the Tang and Song Dynasties. However, the openings were on the right-hand side, according to the Han Dynasty convention. With regards to titled women, mothers and wives of officials, regulations for their costumes were also rigidly codified. There were two main kinds of attire: formal and informal. The former was worn by titled women when they were having an audience with empresses, meeting their relatives or attending sacrificial ceremonies. The outfit was composed of the phoenix coronet, rosy cape, loose-sleeved blouse and over-garment. In the Ming period garments with paddy-field design were unusual because of its excessive use of colours and criss-cross patterns. It was made from brightly coloured pieces of satin materials, pieced together so that they resembled the fields where rice was grown. 33

36 (i) Costumes of Officials The use of symbols in clothes to show status, rank and position was well demonstrated in the Ming and Qing Dynasties. In ancient Chinese feudal society, a strict hierarchical system of various classes in society was in place. This was reflected in the clothing styles of the time and the trend lasted, with modifications, until the twentieth century. Starting with emperors, followed by the robes worn by the upper classes and officials, the official clothing system bore twelve, nine, seven, five or three patterns, according to the rank of the wearer. These patterns included the Sun, the Moon, stars, mountains, dragons, pheasants, fire, algae, sacrificial vessels, rice, axes and a pattern composed of two Chinese character gong, which means bow. The sun, moon, star and mountain patterns were reserved for the garments of emperors, especially the dragon. During the Ming Dynasty ( ), rank was indicated by the type of coronet head-dress and by the type of ribbon worn on the girdle that fastened the robe. This type of dress was typical for sacrificial rites and on these occasions, a lot of formalities were required. First rank officials wore a coronet with seven beams and on their robes there were four colour patterns of clouds and phoenixes. Subsequently, rank eight or nine wore coronets with one beam and two colour patterns of mandarin ducks. In the Ming and Qing Dynasties, civil officials wore robes embroidered with patterns of nine kinds of birds with each type signifying a certain rank; military officers were distinguished by nine different kinds of beasts. Costumes for officials and for common people differed greatly in terms of the material and colour used. Official costumes were decorated with bright colours while those for commoners were plain and dull. Golden yellow was used exclusively for the robes of emperors, bearing dragon patterns. As for material, gauze and all kinds of silks and satins were reserved for nobility while commoners were only allowed to wear cotton clothes and hemps. Legend had it that the imperial concubine Lady Yang of the Tang Dynasty had 700 embroiderers and tailors for her exclusive use. During the Qing Dynasty ( ), a similar type of cloth code was used for officials. The higher ranking officials of all professions including military, civil, court and judicial wore necklace of one hundred and eight beads threaded together. This was one of the extensions of the code used during the Qing Dynasty. By the end of the Qing Dynasty, as Western culture was gradually being introduced into China, 34

37 people started dressing up more for their own convenience. (ii) Costumes of Court Life For the extreme and important fashion forms, emperors and empresses were naturally the leaders throughout Chinese history. At the start of the Ming Dynasty ( ), Han people were in power again and some modifications were made in terms of fashion forms. New complicated dress regulations, which took at least twenty years to codify, were established finally in 1393 AD, at the end of Emperor Taizu s reign. At the court, special headdresses were worn and the costumes of the time were of red satin. In the years of the Ming Dynasty, the robes of emperors and empresses begin to look very spectacular. Emperors of that period, even on ordinary occasions, wore garments of brilliant yellow satin, embroidered with dragon patterns and pheasant designs. It was worn with a turban made from gauze material. The outermost tunic of emperors is called the Dragon Robe, with embroidery of dragons adorning it. Similarly, the ceremonial garment of empresses is called the Pheasant Robe since it is embroidered with pheasant designs. The robe was worn with the phoenix crown, rosy cape and loose-sleeved blouse. Rich women of the Ming period wore the phoenix coronet, rosy cape, loose-sleeve blouses and over-garment. A rosy cape was an extra embroidered loose over garment of different sizes. During the Qing Dynasty ( ), developments in the robes of the court were based on the models found in the previous period. Emperors of this period still wore a bright yellow court robe. Embroidered dragons were the pattern of major importance. Clouds and other decorative designs in the background were added; the lower part of the Dragon Robe is ornamented with numerous wavy lines called Shui Jiao (water foundation). These details changed over time into patterns representing surging waves, mountains and treasures. All of these motifs indicated the lasting reign of the leader of the nation and represent symbols of permanent unity and prosperity of the empire. The Qing Dynasty women at court lived decoration. Sometimes the entire costume was trimmed with braid or narrow strips of patterned fabric so that the original base fabric was hardly visible. 35

38 (iii) Development of Qi Pao The most popular item of most the Chinese women in modern times was the qi pao, one of the traditional Chinese styles which developed early in the Qing Dynasty. when the early Manchu rulers came to China proper, they organised certain people, mainly Manchus, into eight banners (Qi) and called them banner people (Qiren), which then became loosely the name of all Manchus. The origin of qi pao is that Manchu women normally wore a one-piece dress which came to be called qi pao of banner dress. Although the 1911 Revolution toppled the Qing Dynasty, the female dress survived the political changes and, with later improvement, has become the traditional dress for Chinese women. In the 20s, qi pao had become the fashionable choice for many women in China and Hong Kong. The length was just below the knee, corresponding to the shorter length skirts worn in the West. The collar was a narrow band opening which was cut in a straight line with the garment fastening to the hip on the right side with press-studs. The sleeves were shortened to the elbow and widened with a curved edge. During the 30s, the hemline dropped to the ankle and even covered the feet. Qi pao become quite fitted while some worn by fashion-conscious women had side slits reaching up to the thigh, emphasised by clad legs and high heels. A loosening of the garment with the waist and hips more exaggerated was formulated into the original design; the hem was even indented to accentuate the curve.. By this time, qi pao had become a major fashion item, especially for movie stars and those women with high social status. In the 40s, almost every women wore qi pao. Movie stars often wore more decorated and tight versions while those worn by the general public were simpler. Following the end of the Second World War, qi pao was tightened and shortened but its popularity began to wane. By the 60s, women no longer stayed at home and many women began to join the work force. At that time, Hong Kong women s fashions were heavily influenced by the American film industry as evidenced by the completely westernised appearance of local movie stars like Chan Po Chu and Siu Fong Fong. Women s suits gradually took over qi pao and other Chinese-style garments. (Chan, 1991, pp.7) By the end of the 60s, qi pao s popularity had dropped with the advent of various mass-produced Western-style clothing. 36

39 (B) Costumes of Japan The elegant and artistic kimono remains Japan s national costume for men, women and children despite the fact that Western costume is being worn more and more because of its practicality. All kimonos are the same shape that can be worn by anyone, man or woman, regardless of height or weight. It emphasizes the beauty of straight lines. When the kimono is worn, the lines are free falling. When the kimono is folded to be put away, the flowing lines are in a sense preserved by folding along the vertical seams. Making the folds straight and correct evinces the good manners of the wearer. Figure 6.12 Kimono (Source:Masterfile.com) (i) Costumes for Men The men s kimono is practically the same as that of women s but with shorter sleeves. The men wear the ceremonial kimono made in dark blue silk. Over the basic kimono they wear a pleated divided skirt known as hakama with very fine stripes. A loose coat with family crest embroidered in white is worn over the kimono and hakama. A belt is worn around the hips and around the neck is a silken cord with the two tasselled ends tied in a special way. The informal kimono for men is made of cotton and is usually black, dark blue, brown and grey in colour. Fine plaid, bird s eye and dots design are often used. A belt is worn low on the hips (ii) Costumes for Women The most popular costume of Japanese women is kimono. The literal meaning of kimono is a thing, mono, to wear, ki(ru). This is a square cut garment with sleeves that are easy to fold. Kimono varies in size, material and decoration. In the past, more then one kimono could be worn at a time. 37

40 (iii) Costumes for Wedding Ceremony The bride s wedding raiment has a mauvish-pink chiffon hat and flowers as the headdress. A kimono of white silk crepe is the under-dress of the magnificent outer kimono. The latter is of silk painted in yellow, orange, red, black and tawny shades. The obi, about fifteen feet long by about a foot wide, is designed with three stripes sewn together, two of solid red and one figured. The butterfly bow in back puffed with a small cushion is worn only by maidens and brides. The zori is covered with brocade and her tasseled fan is tucked in the obi. Obi is referred to as the expression of beauty fastened to a woman s back. The obi is always tied at the back, but in some regions is tied at the front for funerals and worn with a black kimono decorated with family. (C) Costumes of India (i) Background The civilization of India can be traced back at least 3000 years. Western contact began with the establishment of Portuguese trading posts at the end of the 14 th and the beginning of the 15 th centuries, followed by the Dutch East India Company. Eventual control over the whole of India was acquired by the British operating as the English East India Company. Civil government was set up and the British Parliament assumed political direction, abolished misrule by the rajahs, also many cruel customs and spread English education. Religion had strong influence on the social, political and economic development of India since the beginning of the country s process of modern civilization. India s artistic traditions, which are deeply rooted in religion, greatly influenced the development of music, dance and costume. There are many religious believes today, which are traditionally derived from Hinduism, have been of most importance. Today s Indian costume, especially contemporary men s wear, tends to follow Western trends that dominate the globe but it is more common to find women still wearing costume which carries elements of traditional influence in India. Throughout India both men and women are generally either barefooted or wearing open sandals. (ii) Costume for Men The men s costume is based on the turban, which is called pagri in India, is a piece of white or colourful cotton or silk printed with or without a border. The length is measuring five to twenty-five yards. It is wound around the head in numerous ways; the end either left hanging or knotted on the left side. The modern East Indian dress 38

41 consists of a high-collared, buttoned-up choga with side vents. It is generally of white linen but may be of fabulous brocade for ceremonial wear. Under it, white linen trousers in jodhpur fashion are usually worn. (iii) Costume for Women Sari is the most important and common garment for Hindu women in India. It is a piece of fabric up to eleven yards in length and about forty inches wide, which is pleated, draped and wrapped around the body, with one end left free to cover the head. It can be made of simple cotton muslin or of richer fabrics, including silk with gold or silver threads. It can be simple in pattern or very exquisite, depending upon the occasion. The sari is worn over a tight-fitting, short sleeve or sleeveless petticoat called a choli which reaches to the ankles and is tied at the waist with a draw-sting. The sari is wrapped around the petticoat, pleated in front and tucked into the top. The long end, the pallu, is draped over the left shoulder. The pallu can also be draped over the head or tucked into the waist on the left side to form a drape. Those woven saris with gold and silver threads are handsome and costly. The metal embroidery gives weight to the drapery. Figure 6.13 Saris (Source: Masterfile.com 39

42 6.2 Factors Contributing to Fashion Trends in Local and Global Context Fashion Trend Trend may refer to: The process of getting others to follow or copy Current style such as the latest fashion style Trend can be called vogue Something popular Movement of fashion A new fashion trend is started when one or a series of fashion product is generally accepted by most of the consumers. The formation, development and evolution of a trend are affected by different factors. The trend also provides an essential direction for designers. Fashion designers may continue to develop products with related design concepts which create other new trends. This on-going process will last until these products are no longer accepted by consumers. (A) Fashion Trendsetter Fashion trendsetters are individuals who will accept fashion products with new design concepts or uniqueness which is not common in the existing market. Trendsetters are most often members of the youth demographic or young celebrities. The term trendsetter may not be used necessarily to describe the creator of a trend but rather as an informal alternate to the term early adopter. 40

43 (B) Trend Forecasting Forecasting is more than just attending fashion shows and picking out potential trends that can be mass produced at a lower price point. It is a process that consists of changes in colour and style, lifestyle and consumer behavior. Fashion forecasting and trend analysis play an important role in the fashion industry. Businesses are continually monitoring the changes in fashion, analysing market needs, consumer buying patterns and predicting the forthcoming fashion trends. The information gathered is used to decide product plan, seasonal change, display of merchandise, product development or media arrangement, etc. Understanding fashion cycle is a key to predicting future fashion trends. It is often more important to know the changes in economics, style, culture, marketing and lifestyle. All of which plays a part in the analysis of style movement The Change of Fashion Fashion is a social phenomenon common to many fields of human activity and thinking. The rises and falls of fashion have been thought to be related in the following fields and they are always inter-related: Geographical and environmental factors such as weather, climatic, location Social influences such as lifestyle Technological development such as high-tech materials Economical influences such as simplicity versus glamour Political Influences such as embargo Cultural developments such as believes and religion The change of fashion is related to the spirit of different times, i.e. historical continuity, the cultural and social trend, the way we live and the environment that surrounds us. Fashion is not only restricted to apparel; it can also be any kinds of design, a popular kind of cuisine, a stylish restaurant, the development of technology, a particular kind of sport activity, a management style and so forth. Understanding the meaning of fashion helps explain how these transformations happen. (A) Geographical and Environmental Factors People respond to environment and the natural environment has affected the diet, how to live and what to wear. The human body adjusts to temperature changes by 41

44 producing or releasing heat in specific ways. In extreme cold environments, we need insulating garment for survival is needed. Garment design should involve thick fabrics or in layers so that air spaces are built up and keep the body warm. Hats and scarves are also used to enhance further protection. On the contrary, the human body needs to lose heat in hot weather. Loose clothing can assist the movement of air surrounding the body; thus cool down the skin surface. Light colour tones clothes are worn because light colours reflect sunlight and heat. One thing to note here is that the Japanese fashion market is characterised by its fast-moving fashion cycle with choices of high quality fashion items. This is partly because there are significant differences between the four seasons in Japan so that people naturally require right clothing items for each season (Azuma 2002). The highly urbanised nature and dense population in Japan create consumers desire for differentiation. (B) Social Influences The choice of fashion is to express personal style and attitude. It is often influenced by the public and expectations of others. One s adoption of fashion is glowed by the dual goals of imitation and differentiation, of fitting in and standing out, of following the leader and being distinctive. The best design may not be the most successful product but the success of the product is determined more by social influence than its inherent qualities. To make it simple, the more people demand for a product, the more others will want it, even if there may be other similar alternatives. (i) Fashion Reflects Social Status In many societies, people dress up according to their social status. Throughout history, it is not difficult to find a lot of such referrences: in Roman society, Tyrian purple could only be worn by Roman senators; in China, only the Emperor could wear yellow; in Hawaii, only high-ranking Hawaiian chiefs could wear feather cloaks and palaoa or carved whale teeth. In modern socieities, there are no laws to restrict how people should be dressed. Yet, the cost of a garment can affect the way how choices are made. For instance, only the rich could afford exclusive and luxurious items. (ii) Clothing in Capitalist World versus Socialist World The socialist world is a result of a classless society and people tend to dress themselves similarly. Take Mao s suits during the Cultural Revolution as an example: 42

45 during that period, people all wear green or blue suits, even there was no specific gender differences. On the contrary, in the capital world, we encourage distinction, which leads to more variety of choices of clothing. (C) Technological Development There are three ways to describe how technological development has influenced fashion: (i) Advancement in Production After the Industrial Revolution, sewing machines came into widespread use in the world. Garment forms became standardised and price became lower; hence the term ready-to-wear has come into place. A limited democratisation of fashion occurred in the eighteenth century as some ready-made and partly tailor-made clothing allowed the less wealthy to follow the growing pace of changes in fashion. In the 20s, mass production has become more popular and it has boosted up the trend of Flappers, (also called garçonne style) in which the style of dress was straight and loose. Sizing and fitness do not matter anymore for such style. Today, the industry relies on high-tech manufacturing techniques such as Computer-aided Design (CAD) and Computer-aided Manufacture (CAM)) to provide high quality fashion products. Technology can now allow product to be developed interactively among teams who work in different cities, in different regions of the globe. Designers, merchandisers, buyers and sales personnel can work together editing new fabrics and new garments. Manufacturers can work with retailer buyers on screen to modify products. (ii) Advancement in Transportation Response to the market will be much quicker when goods are transported by air; thus speed up fashion trends and fashion cycles. Sourcing of material location for manufacturing has become more flexible. The fashion industry is offering more choices in more comparative prices. (iii) Advancement in Communication Better communication facilitates the fashion cycle and the fashion trend to become eclectic. With advanced communication, worldwide information is being transmitted more efficiently and easily. The diversity of ethnic and sub-cultural styles has led to distortions of the codes such as oversizing, using clashing colours, designing without reference to body contour, unusual fabrics being used and deliberately poor or 43

46 exposed finishes. (D) Economical Influences In the 80s, fashion was influenced by the Western economic boom. The dominant markets were getting mature and also financially secure. The invention of credit cards also encouraged addictive shopping habits. With the good economic climate, fashion designs were all highly decorated with shinny surfaces and sharp colours. However, the global stock market crashed in 1987 resulting in a trend of using the black colour in most fashion designs. Fashion is an economic entity. A wag writing in the New Yorker summed up the issue, If clothes cannot be relied on to wear out fast enough, something must be found that will wear out faster; that something is what we call fashion. (E) Political Influences During the wartime, designers adjusted the mood of their collections to more military inspired. Clothes were simply cut, Square shouldered clothing matched with low heels to meet the need for more functional wear. Embargo, quota system and policies also affected the way how fashion was perceived. For example, any import restrictions for certain kinds of fashion items to a country would limit the chance for the people in that country to gain access to the products. (F) Cultural Influences By the late 60s, interest in the world's cultures was obvious in fashion. Designers stopped looking to the future for inspiration but look backward to generate ideas for new mixtures as they thought that every already existing culture should have something to offer. Fashion designers had since incorporated more and more design elements from other cultures into their collections. Some examples are stated below: Hawaiian Influences in the 60s generated by the film "Blue Hawaii" Russian Influences in the 60s generated by the film "Dr. Zhivago", which created the trend of Russian military overcoat Colours, symbols and patterns are always important among ethnic costumes and often these serve as the references for fashion designers 44

47 Punk, which originated from the 70s, has created a confrontational, shocking and rebellious trend. Re-signified in the 80s and 90s, punk has become one of the most significant fashion styles Figure 6.14 Punk (i) Lifestyle Casual lifestyle and health consciousness has influenced what people wear everyday. Today, the dress code becomes less important, not many people still wear special clothing for special occasion. They think that they can wear casually everywhere and at any time. Jeans, tight pants, T-shirts and sports shoes become the basic items of almost everyone. (ii) Fashion and Gender Differences Throughout history, men s and women s clothing have not been playing equally on the same field. In the beginning of the 19th century, men s clothing exhibited greater uniformity and a lack of decorative elements. Men rejected the social distinctiveness of dress in favour of a uniform style with similarity in cut, proportion and design. Women, being positioned in a relatively weaker social position than men, wore impractical designs of women s garment such as corset to limit physical movement. (iii) Religious Influences During religious ceremonies, people wear only a particular kind of clothing. Due to this, religious clothing is sometimes regarded as a kind of uniform. However, religious clothing may also be worn every day as a representation of a special religious status. For example, cleanliness of religious dresses in Eastern religions such as Buddhism and Hinduism is of high importance as cleanliness indicates purity. 45

48 6.3 Fashion Designers Exploring a Career in the Fashion Field Careers in the fashion field fall into different areas. Some examples are fashion designer, fashion buyer, image designer, stylist, fashion editor, etc. The job nature of these career pathways depends on the scale of the company and target market involved. Fashion designers may attach to a company, a manufacturer or work on their own as freelance designers. (A) Career Ladder of Fashion Designers The main task of fashion designers is to design collections of clothes and accessories, either for the haute couture market, ready-to-wear market or high street fashion which sells mainly mass market products. Many of them design a whole range of clothes (a collection) or focus on one or more specialist areas. For example, sportswear, eveningwear, causal wear, etc. Most fashion designers make their own design brieves or are given information from their clients in terms of colour and fabric direction and develop the product line based on these details. The typical work activities of fashion design depend upon the market level: (i) Haute Couture Designers Haute Couture a French phrase for high fashion, which requires large amount of time working on the production of garments that are one of a kind. The work couture means dressmaking, sewing or needlework and Haute means elegant or high. Therefore, the two combined imply the fashioning of garments with excellent artistry. The purchase of a model haute couture garment is the purchase of the top level of hand customised fashion design and clothing construction craved by a couture design house. A model haute couture garment is made specifically for the wearers measurements and body stance. The exclusive made-to-measure clothes are virtually made by hand, carefully interlined, stay taped and fitted to perfection for each client. The price is so high for the service, workmanship, originality of a unique design and superb materials of the finest quality. In addition, the client would get a perfection of fit only achieved by painstaking methods of cutting and fitting to the client's body. 46

49 The manual labour needed to produce a garment this way takes between 100 to150 hours for a suit and up to 1000 hours for an embellished evening dress. Fashion designers create their initial designs either by using muslin, which drapes well for flowing designs, or by using linen canvas or calico for more structured garments. The sample garments can be manipulated, marked and adjusted to fit the wearer's measurements until the designer is satisfied. Sometimes designers work for their own label and sometimes they work for a famous haute couture house. The couture house sells only a very limited percentage of model haute couture garments to a contracting number of customers. The profits from this activity are negligible, amounting to less than ten per cent of gross profits of the couture name or even sometimes a loss. Notable couture houses active today are Valentino, Versace, Chanel, Christian Dior, Givenchy, Balenciaga, Lanvin, Yves Saint Laurent, etc. (ii) Ready-to-wear Designers Designers who work on ready-to-wear or Prêt-à-porter collections usually design a relatively smaller number of garments when compared to mass market fashion items. These fashion products are lesser priced but still costly as this kind of products stull have a designer label. On the contrary, high street fashion designers contribute to the production of garments that will be manufactured in hundreds to thousands. After each manufacturer s collection or line is designed, it must be presented to retail buyers so they can buy for their stores. Other than this, they also need to participate in fashion shows, market weeks and contact with sales representatives. (iii) Design for Mass Market Mass market designs target relatively larger group of customers. The term mass market products means those products made by cheaper materials, produced in a large quantity, usually in thousands to millions at an affordable price. These products do not carry a designer label but rather the company name Mass market designers usually follow the trends set by others. (B) Job Duties of Fashion Designers Fashion design should have the ability to: Relate designs and materials in order to produce fashion products with aesthetic as well as functional values. 47

50 Make use of silhouette, line texture and colour to create a design collection. Construct patterns. Draw and sketch, either by using drawing medias or computers. Predict trends and design marketable products. Typical tasks involve different job details but core responsibilities being: Taking an idea and making a sketch by hand or on computer. Developing a pattern. This pattern is then cut and sewn into sample garments. Overseeing production. Most experience designers with larger companies may focus on the design aspects of this process while pattern cutters and machinists contribute to the preparation of sample garments. In smaller companies, designers may do this and other tasks themselves. Other activities include: Analysing trends in fabrics, colours and shapes, range planning and development. Sourcing, selecting and buying fabrics. Producing sketches by hand or by CAD. Adapting existing designs for mass production. Making and cutting patterns. Supervising the making up of sample garments. Liaising closely with sales, buying and production teams. Negotiating with customers and suppliers. (C) Classification of Fashion Designers Designers are found in every quarter, sometimes working independently, sometimes for government, attached to large manufacturers, to retail agencies or to corporations. Following are the classification of fashion designers: 48

51 Design Directors: Designers at managerial level, who get work, organise and present. Design Managers: Those who are experienced, do competent work over a broad field, have good background knowledge of various areas, such as specialists in knitwear design, fashion accessories design, women s wear design, eveningwear design, etc. Fashion Designers: Follow guidelines or design briefs and produce new ideas. Assistant Designers: fresh graduates or beginners, usually a large group concerned with administration or draughtsman-ship. Artists: skim off the surface of others work. Depending on scale of office and nature of job, any designer might shift from one role to another. Following are some routine jobs: Letter or telephone call Initial meeting Accumulation of information Sizing up the job Exchange of letters Contract or fee letter Agreement of terms Research by designer Preliminary ideas Report from designer Meeting to discuss Preparation of presentation Presentation of design solution Discussion of presentation Modifications of design Approval of design Specification of design Manufacturing Handling of Invoice Final settlement Sample request File and store records Development (D) Renowned Designers and Brands of the Past and Present French couture still has the leading role in fashion among the wealthy. A few designers dominate the field because they are able to capture the spirit of their times 49

52 and translate it into highly accepted and appreciated fashion. (i) Charles Fredrick Worth ( ) Charles Fredrick Worth is regarded as the father of modern haute couture. He is the first fashion designer to put his name on the label of clothes. In 1858, he began to produce collections of clothes with his own ideas for clients to approve. His idea of showing finished couture garments on live models was a huge success with the Empress Eugenie and so fashion designers began to dictate what might be fashionable. (ii) Paul Poiret ( ) Paul Poiret is a pioneering French couturier and tastemaker who revolutionised modern dresses by lessening corsets and eliminating layered petticoats in the 18 th century. He created tubular dresses which had liberated women from corsets. He also invented bras as the correct form of underwear for new dress innovations and admonished clients to abandon their corsets. He showed women's blazers, elegant, exotic, kimono-inspired dresses as well as the high-waisted Empire-line dresses. Poiret probably orchestrated the first fashion show in the history of the world. He regularly travelled with models to show his new clothes, opening boutiques in resort cities and making new clothes for wealthy clients on vacation. He was the first couturier to offer a range of perfumes and cosmetics. (iii) Gabrielle Chanel ( ) Gabrielle Chanel is the forefront of French fashion following the First World War. In the 20s, Chanel popularised the Garcons style, with sweaters and jersey dresses, and he was the first designer to make high fashion pants for women. In the 30s, she mixed up the vocabulary of male and female clothes and created fashion that offered wearers a feeling of hidden luxury rather than ostentation. These are just two examples of how her taste and sense of style overlap with today's fashion. Not only is Chanel known for her little black dress and her No. 5 fragrance, so are her classic and timeless suits, shoes, purses and jewellery. Her designs helped define and modernise women's fashion. (iv) Jean Patou ( ) Jean Patou created the famous Flapper look in The Flapper - A fashionable flapper had short sleek hair, a shorter than average shapeless shift dress, a chest as flat as a board, wore make up and applied it in public, smoked with a long cigarette holder and exposed her limbs and epitomised 50

53 the spirit of a reckless rebel who danced the nights away in the Jazz Age. Patou s finest achievements were in the field of sportswear, which always took up an important position in his collections. He was also known for his sweaters with Cubist design. He was very much influenced by Art Deco and Cubism, creating sharp geometric shapes and patterns in his fabrics. He also opened Sports Corner where separate rooms were devoted to clothes for a different sporting activity such as golf or fishing, with clothes co-ordinated with accessories, scarves, lingerie, jewellery, hats, etc. At that time, the ready-to-wear apparel industry began to prosper. That was the time when designers simplified styles and thereby construction. Couture styles were then copied by mass producers for consumers at every price level. Because individual fitting was not important to their straight silhouettes, mass production of dresses became practical in the 20s and many designers have added ready-to-wear lines to their made-to-measure collections. (v) Madelaine Vionnet ( ) Born in 1877, Vionnet began designing in the 20s. Her invention of the bias cut in 1922 is her greatest contribution to fashion. The method has often been used to add an elegant quality to clothes. Bias cut is the technique to make a piece of fabric hang and drape in sinuous folds and stretch over the round contours of the body, fabric pattern pieces can be cut not on the straight grain but at an angle of 45 degree. Throughout her career, she was compared with Chanel. However, she had a very distinct and revolutionary style. She rejected corsets, padding, stiffening and anything that distorted the natural curves of the body. Her designs were favored among European nobility and many Hollywood stars. For example, Marlene Dietrich, Gypsy Rose Lee and Katherine Hepburn were all big fans of her creations. (vi) Elsa Schiaparelli ( ) Her designs were of hard chic and unconventional styling. Elsa Schiaparelli had a love of rich fabrics and feminine fantasy clothes that frequently had a surreal twist. She mixed with famous cubist and surrealist artists Man Ray, Salvador Dali, Marcel Duchamp and Francis Picabia. Fabric and accessories were often designed for her by Dali, Jean Cocteau and Christian Berard. 51

54 She was one of the most influential clothing designers of the 20th century with a specialisation in sportswear. In addition to clothing, she also put out a number of perfumes. The first and most famous of which, named Shocking, was designed in 1936 by the surrealist artist, Leonor Fini. The perfume is famous for its packaging: the bottle itself was in the shape of a woman's torso based on the curvaceous body of one of Schiaparelli's clients, film star Mae West. Schiaparelli also designed costume jewellry. She was known for her vivid use of colour and juxtaposition of shapes and textures. (vii) Designs in the War Years ( ) The war years made communication with Europe impossible and made Americans begin to appreciate their own designers. (viii) Christian Dior ( ) With his New Look, Paris fashion leadership is regained. After a family financial disaster in the 30s, Dior made a living by doing sketches for haute couture houses. In 1945, backed by a cotton-fabric magnate, he went into business for himself and he presented his first fashion show in the following year. Dior was a master at creating shapes and silhouettes. His famous design New Look, originally called the Corolla Line, had totally changed the boxy, fabric-conserving shapes of the wartime fashion styles, revolutionised women's dress and reestablished Paris as the centre of the fashion world after the Second World War. His look employed fabrics lined predominantly with percale, boned, bustier-style bodices, hip padding, wasp-waisted corsets and petticoats that made his dresses flare out from the waist, giving his models a very curvaceous form. The hems of his skirts were very flattering on the calves and ankles, creating a beautiful silhouette. Today, the label's head designer John Galliano has established the look of the "Anything Goes" era with his own extreme makeover of the house. (ix) Cristóbal Balenciaga ( ) The Spanish designer, noted for his huge evening coats with dolman sleeves; long, full skirts; tunic and chemise dresses; fitted dressmaker suits; pillbox hats; perfumes; scarves and the seven-eighths coat. Balenciaga was an innovator in his use of fabrics: he tended towards heavy fabrics such as heavy-sized silk, intricate 52

55 embroidery and bold materials. Balenciaga is now owned by the Gucci Group and its women s wear and men s wear are headed by Nicolas Ghesquière. His contribution to modern fashion has been the abstract way he has treated embellishment, reducing Balenciaga's decorative wedding dresses to pieces of ragged tulle and pearl swags dangling from dresses that are snapped up by his fans, Kate Moss and Charlotte Gainsbourg. They find in the designer's work an image of strong women fused with delicate femininity. Today, the brand is also famous for its line of motorcycle-inspired handbags, especially the famous "Lariat". (x) Givenchy (50s 60s) Givenchy s designs are elegant and refined. It is a French brand of clothing, accessories, perfumes and cosmetics. Two women are claimed to be representatives of the typical Givenchy style of the 50s and 60s. They are namely, Audrey Hepburn and Jackie Kennedy. Givenchy was founded in 1952 by designer Hubert de Givenchy. After his retirement in 1995, the brand was headed by John Galliano and was later replaced by Alexander McQueen. The reins for both haute couture and women's ready-to-wear were ultimately passed on to Riccardo Tisci in 2005, featuring a gothic touch. (xi) Yves Saint Laurent (50s 60s) In 1958, Yves presented his first collection called the Trapeze line. It was considered the most important and fully formulated line in Paris. The newspapers had banner headlines that day reporting St. LAURENT HAS SAVED FRANCE, THE GREAT DIOR TRADITION WILL CONTINUE." In 1965, YSL presents dresses based on the paintings of Mondrian, geometrically patterned, and the design was then copied everywhere. One of Yves Saint Laurent's greatest talents is colour. His pants and jackets became a statement for a new generation of women. (xii) Mary Quant ( ) In the 60s, Mary Quart designed a collection of short waist skimming mini dresses and skirts that were set six or seven inches above the knee. The shapes Quant designed were simple, neat, clean cut and young. She was one of the many 53

56 designers inventing miniskirts and hot pants. In addition to miniskirts, Mary Quant was also famous for her colourful and patterned stockings that matched the miniskirts. In the 60s, she was described as the leading fashion force outside Paris. Throughout the 70s and 80s, she concentrated on household goods and comestic products. After a Japanese buy-out, Mary Quant resigned the company as director in Today, the brand is popular in Japan and there are over 200 Mary Quant Colour shops in Japan, where Quant fashions continue to enjoy more popularity. (xiii) Designs of the 60s to 70s In the late 60s, there was confusion in fashion direction. Paris s influence on fashion had declined and there was an Ethnic Influence throughout the world and later turned into street fashion. In the 70s, there was also an international exchange of fashion. Major influences on fashion design were still from French prêt-à-porter. At the same time, Italian designers have became more and more important. For example, Giorgio Armani for his elegant suitings, Missoni for knits, Ferragamo for shoes, Gucci for handbags. In America, Halston and Calvin Klein began to dominate the fashion market. (xiv) Designs of the 80s In the 80s, there was a demand for a global outlook and there was a rise of internationally known, popularly priced sportswear manufacturers such as Liz Claiborne, Espirt and Benetton. In Europe, Armani set the fashion tone for professional women while Lagerfeld and Lacroix revitalized the French couture. Ralph Lauren and Donna Karan became respected names in American fashion. In the East, the rise of Japanese designers had great impacts on the world of fashion design for their innovation in pattern design and cultural implications. (xv) Takada Kenzo Takada Kenzo is one of the first male students to join Tokyo's Bunka Fashion College. He moved to work in Paris in 1965 when the French haute couture was restricted to foreigners. After several hardships, he was able to work as a freelance designer and opened his first boutique 'Jungle Jap' in In the same year, he had his debut show which was well received and established him as a revolutionary designer. Kenzo was one of the first designers to fuse oriental with occidental fashion and, in the process, globalised the look. His current collections include men s wear, women s 54

57 wear, fashion accessories, fragrances and skincare products. His creations were a communion between cultures that made the clothes look fresh, seductive with just the right touch of fantasy. Since 1993, his business has been part of the luxury-goods empire. In 1999, he showed his final collection in Paris. (xvi) Yohji Yamamoto A former law student, who later studied fashion at Tokyo's Bunka Fukuso Gakuin design school, Yohji Yamamoto showed his first collection in 1977 in Tokyo under the name Y's, featuring classic and timeless pieces. In 1983, he received greater recognition in Paris where he showed his spring/summer collection. His clothes are full of allusions and he is known for his sophisticated yet plain style. His preferred colours are black, navy and white but occasionally he does use splashes of other colours. Apart from his Y line of clothing for men and women, he also designs opera costumes and ballet sets. In 2003, with Adidas, he created the Y-3 label, which became one of the first and most successful series of designer-activewear. The Y-3 collection includes footwear and accessories. (xvii)issey Miyake The philosophy of Issey Miyake - Simplicity is always beautiful. Miyake s collections are defined as slim, architecturally-inspired designs highlighted with subtle details. After graduating from the Tama Art University in Tokyo, where he studied graphic art, Miyake worked in Paris and New York but returned to Tokyo in 1970 and set up the Miyake Design Studio. He is known for constructing garments out of a single piece of fabric and invents a new technique called garment pleating. He has launched Pleats Please boutiques in Tokyo, Paris, London and New York where his ready-to-wear collection is sold. Apart from clothing, Mikaye also has lines of accessories and fragrances. Mikaye collections are a fusion of Asian traditions with European classicism and American functionality. Other well known lines of Issey Miyake include the Pleats Please collection and A-POC. (xviii) Rei Kawakubo Having worked in a textile company, Rei Kawakubo started her career as a freelance stylist. She had no formal training in fashion design. However, in 1973, she founded Comme des Garcons Co Ltd in Tokyo where she sold women's clothing. Five years later she added a men's line. In 1980, she had the opportunity to present her collection in Paris and because of its success she opened her first boutique there. Rei's Comme des Garcons specialises in anti-fashion, occasionally deconstructed 55

58 garments. By the late 80s, Comme des Garcons operated more than 300 stores worldwide. Rei prefers to have her garments in black, dark gray and white, often worn with combat boots. (xix) Antwerp Six and the New Talents Antwerp Six marks the youngster generation of fashion designer in Belgium, they are not all Belgian but they all work in Antwerp or Brussels, which is why they are often called Belgian designers. They are a group of influential fashion designers from Antwerp s Royal Academy of Fine Arts, presented a distinct vision for fashion that makes Antwerp a notable location for fashion design. The Antwerp Six includes: Walter Van Beirendonck Ann Demeulemeester Dries Van Noten Dirk Van Saene Dirk Bikkembergs Martin Margiela Design Believes and Style The word "design" refers to an invention of something with a purpose. People design according to individual goals such as design for a special market/ group. Design underpins every form of creation. It also implies an effort to create something that is functional and has an aesthetic value. (A) Definition of Fashion Design Fashion design is one kind of applied art. The goal of fashion designer is to design clothing or related products such as fashion accessories within the cultural and social influences of a specific time. (B) Typical Steps for Fashion Design A design process may include a series of steps followed by designers. Typical steps of any design process include: 56

59 Pre-production: Design direction/brief - It is a statement of design goals, usually set by a senior management or by clients, with seasons, styling and colour direction. Research and Analysis Research on styles and trends and benchmarking with competitors. Design Specification Identify requirments for the collection such as colourways, materials and measurements. Design Presentation During Production: Development Develop samples for approval. Product test/marketing test Feasibility test of product. Implementation Mass production. Post Production: Evaluation and re-design of product (C) Areas of Fashion Design Areas of fashion design are normally divided as follows:- Women s wear Men s wear Children s wear Sportswear Knitwear Eveningwear Bridal wear Lingerie 57

60 Fashion Accessories (D) Various Fashion Styles (i) French Fashion Styles Notable French fashion houses are mostly located in Paris. The style of French fashion is chic and stylish, famous for its skilful cut and accessories co-ordinations. French designs consider the epitome of style and fashion in ladies' garments. Famous French fashion design houses include Chanel, Christian Dior, Jean-Paul Gaultier, Louis Vuitton, etc. (ii) Italian Fashion Styles The Italian fashion capital is situated in Milan because it is the hub for most of the well-known designers and it is also the exhibition venue for Italian fashion collections. Italian fashion features casual elegance and luxurious fabrics. The first Italian luxury brand was Salvatore Ferragamo. Other exclusive fashion names include Valentino, Gianfranco Ferrè, Giorgio Armani, Gianni Versace, Dolce & Gabbana, Prada and Gucci. (iii) British Fashion Styles The majority of British fashion houses are based in the capital of the country, London. British designs are considered to be traditional, classic, elegant, yet conservative. The Savile Row tailors feature classic gentlemen styles. Famous British designer names include Vivienne Westwood, Paul Smith, Mary Quant and Alexander McQueen. (iv) American Fashion Styles The majority of American fashion houses are based in New York although there are also a significant number of them in Los Angeles. Chicago was once the centre of American fashion. American fashion design is famous for its clean cut and casual style. Well known fashion designers include Ralph Lauren, who is known for his casually elegant clothes in natural fabrics, and Donna Karan, who is known for practical and sophisticated women's wear. 58

61 (v) Japanese Fashion Styles Japanese fashion consists of a mixture of both traditional and modern styles. A large part of the traditional Japanese fashion has evolved to what is known as Street Fashion today although, occasionally, traces of traditional Japanese fashion can be encountered in large cities of Japan. Japanese street fashion started to impact Western fashion during the beginning of the 21st century. The term 'Street Fashion' is used to describe a fashion pattern that wearers customise their outfits by mixing and matching of current and traditional trends. Such clothes are generally regarded as DIY (Do-it-yourself). Some of the most influential Japanese fashion designers include Takada Kenzo, Issey Miyake, Yohji Yamamoto and Rei Kawakubo. 6.4 Total Image for Fashion Design The Nature of Fashion Image It is the job of fashion designers to experiment with identity and appearances through dress. Fashion designers must offer clothing that allows people the opportunity to project their own fantasies, be that individual a popstar or princess. Therefore, understanding one s fashion image is crucial to successful designs Major Fashion Style Fashion trend may move up from the most avant-garde to more mainstream. It can also be a way to recycle fashion style. Looking for these trend movements enables businesses to predict fashion direction. There are eight major fashion trends that have appeared through times: 59

62 Classic Elegant Modern Feminine Major Trend Avant-garde Ethnic Mannish Sportive Figure 6.15 Major Fashion style Each of the major fashion styles are discussed as follows:- (A) Classic Style Classic style represents something that is long lasting. It can be worn for years and still looks trendy. In the textile sector, patterns like tartan, checks, stripes/ pin stripes and spots are all classic designs. In the fashion sector, some examples of classic styles are denim/ jeans, double breasted jacket, trench coats, etc. In terms of brands, some examples of classic style brands are Issey Miyake s pleated fabric, Emilio Pucci s psychedelic patterns, Missoni s zigzag knitted design, Giorgio Armani s muted colour tone and Christian Dior s New Look. 60

63 Figure 6.16 Plaids are one of the classic patterns Figure 6.17 Double breasted jackets are regarded as a classical design (B) Modern Style The term modern in fashion first appeared in the 60s when everybody was talking about science and technology. Some examples of modern designs include Mary Quant s five point hair cut, PVC clothing, which is an influence by the development of plastic, anything white and metal and round shapes, similar to the planets. Modern also means being or in accordance with current social fashions or the contemporary style. For example, fashionable clothing" or "a fashionable cafe". 61

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