Ústav archeologie a muzeologie. Klasická archeologie. The Jewellery of The Lydian Treasure

Transcription

1 Masarykova univerzita Filozofická fakulta Ústav archeologie a muzeologie Klasická archeologie Anna Krčmářová The Jewellery of The Lydian Treasure Magisterská diplomová práce Vedoucí práce: Mgr. Věra Klontza, Ph.D. 2014

2 Prohlašuji, že jsem magisterskou diplomovou práci vypracovala samostatně s využitím uvedených pramenů a literatury... Anna Krčmářová

3 Ráda bych poděkovala zejména Mgr. Věře Klontze, Ph.D. za cenné rady a připomínky, které mi poskytla při psaní magisterské práce. V neposlední řádě děkuji své rodině a přátelům za jejich podporu a trpělivost. Anna Krčmářová

4 Contents Contents... 4 Introduction... 6 A definition of term Treasure... 7 Further definitions: other relevant terms Lydia Territory Landscape and nature Sardis Historical sources Brief history of the region History of excavations The Metropolitan Museum of Art Origin of the Lydian Treasure objects Burials and settlements Burial types Pits and cists Sarcophagi Chamber tombs Tumuli Tumuli in the Uşak-Güre region and Menisa province The grave assemblages Jewellery and gold Precious materials in Lydia Materials of the Lydian Treasure jewellery Artefacts of precious materials Gold refining Methods of analyses Problems with Chemical Analysis The gold refining in the PN sector: summary remarks The Lydian Treasure jewellery The individual categories of jewellery Earrings Necklaces Winged sun-disc pectoral Pendants Brooches Fibulae Appliqués Pins Bracelets Rings The other types of jewellery Formers, punches, pipes Lydian Treasure jewellery: conclusion remarks The individual techniques of jewellery workmanship Granulation

5 Punching Filigree Repoussé Chasing and engraving Casting Stone setting Chains Joining The other minor processes of the jewellery workmanship Formers and punches Lydian jewellery attributed to the individual tumuli Toptepe İkiztepe İkiztepe-Toptepe Harta, Aktepe and Basmacı Unknown provenance Lydian Treasure jewellery attributions: remarks Parallels to The Lydian Treasure jewellery Other artefacts of the Lydian Treasure Extra Lydian Jewellery Jewellery of Sardis Jewellery of Ephesian Artemision Motifs and other parallels Lydian Treasure parallels: summary remarks Meaning of jewellery Periodization and Provenience Conclusion Resumé Bibliography Online sources List of Abbreviations Illustrations List of Maps List of Graphs List of Plates List of Figures Maps Graphs Plates Figures

6 Introduction Known by scholars and the general public as the Lydian Treasure, this collection of precious and finely crafted jewellery is collectively classified as objects originating from the sixth century BC; therefore we may say they were produced during the reign of the Lydian king Croesus. Among these artefacts it was not only jewellery but other objects such as metal vessels, a pair of marble sphinxes, fragments of wall paintings as well as punches and formers for diverse items included. As a result of looting, and the subsequent trading with part of the artefacts on the black market, most of the important information about the context of the Treasure was destroyed. This has resulted in plenty of questions - which could have been answered due to archaeological excavations but remain unsolved or their explanation is not sufficient enough. The goal of my thesis is revision and reevaluation of them. In the first part natural conditions, history, and culture aspects of the Lydian region will be presented. These basics will provide an important background for the later study of the jewellery collection itself. In the second part the material of the Treasure jewellery as well as the gold refinery not far away from Sardis will be studied as a place of their possible origin. Afterwards, the objects themselves will be discussed. I divided them and consequently treated them typologically as well as according to their burial mounds. In particular I analysed the quality of their construction, regularities and abnormalities, and manufacturing techniques. I am undertaking the following questions: about the provenance of the looted objects: Is it really possible to relate the objects of the treasure without any documentation from the proper excavators to the Lydian region? Is it possible to find the exact place of their original context? Can these objects be really dated from the sixth century BC? Is it possible to date all the jewellery according to Achaemenid stylistic elements, which are mainly visible in the vessels? 6

7 I will try to answer these questions using the stylistic analysis and other comparative critical method between stolen objects and objects from excavations with proper documentation. Then I will compare the chemical analysis of items found at Sardis, and Pactoclus River with objects from the Lydian Treasure. My main aim is to attempt to assign the jewellery of the Lydian Treasure to the most specific period and place of their origin or burial. The results of this research will be crucial for further study. A definition of term Treasure The objects of Lydia artificially collected together are often named the Lydian Treasure or the Lydian Hoard. According to the Oxford English Dictionary a hoard is An accumulation or collection of anything valuable hidden away or laid by for preservation or future use; a stock, store, esp. of money; a treasure. 1 The definition of a treasure is Wealth or riches stored or accumulated, esp. in the form of precious metals; gold or silver coin; hence in general, money, riches, wealth. 2 According to these definitions a term treasure seems more appropriate. The word treasure originates from the Greek thesauros, meaning "store, treasure, treasure house". The word gradually occurred also in other languages, for example in Middle English this term appeared in the form thesur. The later modern spelling originated in the 16 th century. 3 The use of both terms is related with the law of Treasure Trove dated back at least to the 12 th century AD. 4 This law s aim was to allow to the king to acquire any precious objects that were found, if their owners could not be traced. The law was further specified in 1996 by the Treasure Act. It is applied in England, Wales and Northern Ireland. According to that act Treasure is classified as any metallic object containing at least 10% of precious 1 Oras E., 2012, p Oras E., 2012, p on/analysing_treasure.aspx 7

8 metal and it is older than 300 years in time of its foundation. In the case of coins more possibilities are given. 5 In 2003 the novel also counts as Treasure groups of two or more base-metal prehistoric objects. 6 The law also specifies the financial reward for finders, with the intention to provide greater protection to the artefacts. In England the law was also supplemented by the Portable Antiquities Scheme 7, which supports the cooperation of public and archaeologist in case of some archaeological finds. Further definitions: other relevant terms In the thesis there are often use terms, which also need some, at least foundational clarification. 1. The Lydian kingdom = the area, where are visible the first specific Lydian elements. This area was under the control and the rule of the Lydian Kings until the period of the expansion in the Middle Lydian period The Lydian Empire = the area controlled by the king Croesus of the Mermnad dynasty. The major expansion of the Lydian culture from its beginning to the Persian conquest in the Late Lydian period Asia Minor and Anatolia = the terms for area limited on the north by Black Sea, on the south by Mediterranean Sea, on the west by Aegean Sea and on the east by Taurus Mountains and the upper reaches of Euphrates. 10 The modern authors often mix these two terms together and they use them as synonyms. It is visible for example in the Czech version of the encyclopaedia of antiquity. 11 In another case, researchers use only one term according to their limitations. This is observable in The Oxford Handbook of on/analysing_treasure.aspx 7 Greene K., Moore T., 2010, p Roosevelt Ch. H., 2009, p Roosevelt Ch. H., 2009, p Svoboda L., 1973, p Svoboda L., 1973, p

9 Ancient Anatolia. 12 In this book Anatolia is limited by the period from the earliest of Neolithic to the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC. 13 In my thesis the term Asia Minor is used for the classical period of the area and term Anatolia is used for the prehistoric period. 4. Finally I want to stress that within the thesis two terms plates and figures are distinguished. The Lydian Treasure items are depicted on plates. The other discussed items are depicted on figures. 12 Steadman S. H., McMahon J. G., 2011, p Steadman S. H., McMahon J. G., 2011, p. 3. 9

10 1. Lydia 1.1. Territory The Lydian kingdom was established in western Asia Minor (Map 1), next to its neighbours - Mysia on the north, Phrygia on the east, Ionia on the west and Caria on the south. Today this area belongs to Turkey. The kingdom was situated in place where today spread the regions of Uşak, Manisa and Izmir. However, the determination of the exact boarders is in this region very difficult. It is caused mainly because of apparent, strong mix of Lydian and surrounding cultures, especially in the South and Northwest. In these areas there were suggested so called border zones 14, the transitional strips between individual cultures (Map 2). These zones were firstly mentioned by Zvelebil in and they represent areas with material culture of both neighbours. The Lydian borders were later extended several times during the campaigns of the kings of the Mermnad dynasty between the 7 th and 6 th century BC. The further expansions were stopped by capturing of Lydia by Cyrus of Persia in the mid 6 th century BC Landscape and nature The landscape of Lydia was a suitable strategic place because of its numerous rivers, lakes, mountains, plains, and rich natural sources. Through the centre leads the Hermos River with its fertile valley. Above this river is situated the Gygaean Lake, where the first civilization in Lydia was attested. 14 Roosevelt Ch. H., 2009, p Mentioned in chapter Mesolithic Prelude and Neolothic Revolution. In: Hunters in Transition to Farming. 10

11 The agricultural richness of this region was already indicated by ancient sources and later confirmed by archaeological evidence. The cereal, olive, nut and grape cultivation have been verified by pollen samples from Gölcük, the ancient Lake Torrhebia 16 and other places. 17 The remains of horses, donkeys, camels, sheep, goats, cattle and pigs were exposed at Sardis. 18 Furthermore, the Lydia has rich resources of timber, marble, limestone, precious stones and minerals. 19 Rich resources and fertile soils revealed that almost all areas were suitable for settlements in ancient times. It means that there is a need to explore an extremely large area, where settlements or other sites could be placed. The survey is aside of large expense also embarrassed by topographical changes, which were caused by seismic tremors and winter floods. The strongest were attested around Sardis. The climate of Lydia differed from region to region. It was caused by extremely large area of empire in its most famous period, when Lydia controlled all Asia Minor west of the River Halys. The Aegean coast is characterised by zone of Mediterranean macroclimate with mild, wet winters and warm, dry summers. Eastern Lydia in contrast has a continental climate with cold winters and low precipitations in summer Sardis The function of Sardis in the Lydian culture is extremely high due to its unique urban status. No other Lydian city, known to us, reached such position. Unfortunately, only a small part, less than one percent, 21 of Lydian Sardis has in fact been excavated. 22 The capital was established at Sardis around the late 8th or early 7th century BC, but the earliest artefacts excavated in the city are dated to the Early Bronze Age (3 rd and 2 nd 16 Roosevelt Ch. H., 2009, p More in: McMillan A., Payne A., p More in: Roosevelt Ch. H., 2009, pp Roosevelt Ch. H., 2009, pp ; Payne A., pp Roosevelt Ch. H., 2009, p The main source of information about Sardis is Guralnick 1987; Hanfmann

12 millennium BC). The earliest extensive, probably pre-lydian habitation of Sardis is attested to the 14 th -12 th centuries BC based on pottery sequences and stratification. 23 The great importance of the city was underlined by minerals, agricultural and other resources. It also attracted attention due to its strategic position 24 and a naturally defensible location. Due to all these facts the city was occupied up to Roman times. Although the central position of Sardis, it was after the Persian conquest replaced by Susy and everything valuable was transported there, even the skilful craftsmen. The city probably played an important role in the Achaemenid Empire again. It is confirmed by the later, Persian reconstruction of the fortification wall destroyed during the Darius conquest, of the constructing of new, additional fortifications on the southern slope of the acropolis and by a reconstruction or refashion of a few monuments in the Achaemenid period. 25 Furthermore, the high-status Lydians probably kept their dominance. They hold important positions alongside Persians in the satrapal administration. 26 This event is apparent from the continuity of the archaeological material between the Middle Lydian and the Achaemenid period. Because of this link some authors use term Late Lydian for the Achaemenid period. However, this is not valid at Sardis. There appeared in this period new additions to pottery and architectural forms. 27 They probably reflected some local changes in society. It is visible in a variety of material evidence Historical sources Most of the information about Lydia and the Lydians is known to us from archaeological excavations, historical and epigraphic sources. There is a need to compare them and find a balance between them in order to recognise all possible facts. The main ancient written sources where some information is noted about Lydians or about gold and its refining process are the Herodotus History, Hittite archives, On the Erythrean Sea written by 23 Greenewalt Jr. C. H., 2010, pp along a major communication 25 Roosevelt Ch. H., 2009, p Roosevelt Ch. H., 2009, p Roosevelt Ch. H., 2009, p

13 Agatharkides, Pliny's Natural History. During their study we need to keep in mind that they were written by other cultures, usually in another period so they cannot be always objective. Herodotus for example distinguished people more or less on Hellenic stock and foreigners or rather barbarians. His prejudice to other nations is visible on one sentence from his Historia [1.60.3] since from old times the Hellenic stock has always been distinguished from foreign by its greater cleverness and its freedom from silly foolishness 28 The other problem is that written sources are not coming from the Lydian period. Hittite archives describe the period previous to continual Lydian habitation. 29 Greeks, Herodotus and Agatharkides lived in the 5 th and 2 nd centuries BC and Pliny lived in the 1 st century AD. In addition, it is important to keep in mind that Herodotus, Agatharkides and Pliny are more historians thus some of their technical descriptions can be incorrect in detail Brief history of the region The Lydian treasure is generally set in the reign of King Croesus, the last member of the Mermnads dynasty, who wanted to capture Persia. Instead of it, he suffered a big loss and Lydia came under the Persian control in the mid 6 th century BC. Kings of the Mermnads dynasty were the first historical attested rulers of Lydia. However, according to the archaeological accounts the primary habitation in the area is dated to the prehistoric period. The first historical evidence attesting the habitation in this region during the Late Bronze Age is in the Hittite archives. Unfortunately after their downfall and demise of their empire, there is not sufficient information about the history of the region until Mermnad kings. Roosevelt calls the period, between the Late Bronze Age and the first Mermnad king, Gyges, pseudo-historical. 30 It began around 1200 BC and kings mentioned by written sources in this period are rather mythical. In the archaeological context of this period there are visible new settlement patterns and material culture. 28 Available on: 29 The collapse of Hittite culture took place around 1200 BC. 30 Roosevelt Ch. H., 2009, p

14 The origin and arrival of the Lydians to Lydia is still not fully attested. The skeletal material from Lydia and its surroundings showed a high degree of biological continuity from the 3 rd millennium BC to the 3 rd millennium AD. Unfortunately the material from Lydian periods at Sardis is scarce. The language survey which could also indicate the origin of Lydians is problematic. It coincides with the skeletal research and sets the date of Lydian arrival by the 3 rd millennium, but it doesn t correspond with other linguistic researches. According to them, in this area Luwian language, attested by inscriptions, was used. One often accepted theory is that Lydians lived somewhere in Anatolia, not far away from later kingdom and that Sardis was settled by descendants of Luwian tribes later mixed with the local Anatolians. 31 The linguistic researches and historical sources indicated possible Lydian origin to northwestern Anatolia, Lydia, or historical Mysia 32 or Maeonia. The exact place is unknown. In the history of Lydia the most important periods for our research are The Middle Lydian and The Late Lydian, also sometimes called Achaemenid. As it is noted above, the first king of Mermand dynasty, Gyges is the first historically confirmed ruler. According to Herodotus he reigned between the years 716 and 678 BC. Today the date has been moved on to the years BC. 33 From our point of view it is important the Herodotus mention, that Gyges made offerings of silver and gold objects at Delphi as well as notes about the wealth of Lydian kings. 34 It is important not only because of gold and silver but also because of attesting of some level of ties between Greeks and Lydians. 31 Dedeoğlu H., 2003, p Roosevelt Ch. H., 2009, p Roosevelt Ch. H., 2009, p Herodotus "...and Gyges the king sent many gifts to Delphi. Most of his offerings there are of silver, but as well as the silver he dedicated a great quantity of gold among which six golden mixing bowls are most worthy of mention. These stand in the Treasury of the Corinthians and weigh thirty talents...this gold and silver which Gyges gave is called by the Delphians Gygadas after the name of the ded icator..." - Waldbaum J. C., 1983, p

15 Herodotus also mentioned that Gyges allowed to Milesians to establish a colony at Abydus on the Dardanelles. He was to attack Smyrna and Miletus and capture the town of Colophon. His successors were Ardys and Sadyattes, who reigned the campaigns to southern Ionia, where they captured Priene and also plundered Milesian territory. The successor of Sadyattes was his son Alyattes, who expelled the Cimmerians from Asia. He continued the expansion of the Lydian empire on the west as well as on the east. The last king of Lydia was Croesus. He controlled all western Anatolia from the river Halys, with the exception of Lycia and Cilicia, to the Aegean cost. In 546 BC Lydia became a satrapy under the rule of Persia after the conquest of empire by Cyrus History of excavations The first excavations at Sardis, made by the Princeton University Expedition during the years , were led by Butler and consequently in 1922 by Shear. The Lydian horizont came from the higher levels of the Lydian Trench as well as from stratified deposits at the north of the Pactolus on the banks of the river. 35 Plundering of tombs, which is especially well documented in the case of the Lydian Treasure, is already attested by Crosby during the first official excavations. 36 It seems that the tumuli were plundered consequently already from the antiquity. Looting was not just a phenomenon of the last century, as most of us believe, there are also traces of looting in last decades. In 2000 a dealer was caught with gold jewellery from Tilkitep tumulus in Alaşehir valles. In the same year some pieces of jewellery similar to the Lydian Treasure pieces appeared in a gallery in Geneva. 37 The looters are able to illegally take everything what they find around them. What the first group of looters did not steal, was stolen by the others consequently coming. This is for example the case of frescoes from Aktepe taken in the last wave of plundering of this tomb. What the plunders did not take with them was at least damaged or completely destroyed as the table from the tomb. This also happened in the Asartepe mound, where an 35 Waldbaum J. C., 1983, pp Roosevelt Ch. H., Luke Ch., 2006, p Roosevelt Ch. H., Luke Ch., 2006, p

16 archaic lion statue (occurring rarely outside of Sardis) was found in As Roosevelt noted, before he and his group came back to document the statue, it was smashed. 38 According to him the reason for this acting was an effort to preserve site as a cultivated land and disturb its archaeological value. 39 Other explanations are also possible. In Bin Tepe there were at least 116 tumuli found during 2005 research season. In this number there are not included 3 tumuli, which were documented before and do not exist anymore as well as other tumuli which were destroyed. Just some spolia of their stone tomb chambers survived. Roosevelt noted that 111 of 116 documented tumuli showed evidence of illicit digging. 40 Data, which was collected, suggest that looters work full time and they are connected to developed networks. 41 Because of the legend about Kings Croesus gold and because of other gold objects, which were already found, the mania of plundering doesn t seem to end soon. Some of the destroying activities are accredited to agricultural activities, but others were made for sure by looters or farmers instigated by dealers. In 2005 it emerged that some farmers covered up the evidence of looting on their properties because they were aware of being blamed for illicit activities. 42 The main wave of plundering came in the modern history in the 1960s. It was also proved that some local officials were involved in looting activities during this period. 43 In this time, the artefacts later named as the Lydian Treasure, started to appear on the black market with antiquities. Huge amount of objects, today incorporated into the Turkish heritage, were bought by the Metropolitan Museum of Art between ages for one and half million dollars. The place of origin of most of the jewellery incorporated into treasure is due to plundering today - still not completely sure. 38 Roosevelt Ch. H., Luke Ch., 2006, p Roosevelt Ch. H., Luke Ch., 2006, p Roosevelt Ch. H., Luke Ch., 2006, p Roosevelt Ch. H., Luke Ch., 2006, p Roosevelt Ch. H., Luke Ch., 2006, p Roosevelt Ch. H., Luke Ch., 2006, p

17 The objects from Turkey were recognised by authorities from this country after the publication of two catalogues in and by the Metropolitan museum of Art. Until this time the artefacts were kept in storage and had never before been displayed to the public. During the exhibition, the objects were attributed by the museum to eastern Greek culture (more in chapter 1.7. The Metropolitan Museum of Art). From these times the quarrel about The Lydian Treasure started between two sides. After six years of a legal fight the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York agreed to resolve the dispute out-ofcourt. Because of this Turkey dropped the lawsuit and the treasure was placed in October of 1993 under the Uşak Museum of Turkey. The agreement between the Metropolitan Museum and Turkey also included cooperation of both states in questions of art conservation, reciprocal loans, archaeological excavations in Turkey and study of the objects. It is notable that while during the law process the Metropolitan Museum was blamed, none of the looters themselves was accused. In 2006, one of the most representative pieces of the Treasure, a gold brooch in the shape of a winged sea horse (Plate 20), was stolen and replaced with a fake. It raised the question of: Is restitution of objects legitimate when the country of heritage origin is not able to protect the requested materials? 1.7. The Metropolitan Museum of Art As it is noted above, the first mention about the objects from the Lydian Treasure came from catalogues of the Metropolitan museum of art. Their series of objects mentioned items such as oinochoes 46, ladles 47, jewellery 48, and others with no detailed note of their provenance and period of origin. Only the basic artistic and dimensional descriptions are mentioned. 44 von Bothmer D. A, Mertens J. R., von Bothmer D. A., 1984, pp ; Mertens J. R., 1987, p von Bothmer D. A., 1984, pp. 42, von Bothmer D. A., 1984, p

18 The question of whether the museum knew the real origin of the objects is disputable. In catalogues there is no mention about the Lydian culture. One exception is an incense burner with a Lydian inscription alluded. 49 In the introduction to the catalogue there is only one mention about the influence of the Greek art by East in the 8 th century, especially by motifs of griffins, lotuses, and palmette trees Origin of the Lydian Treasure objects The looted objects were assigned through the cooperation of the Turkish archaeologists and their colleagues from the United States on the basis of the statements of the thieves, administration of the Museum itself and mainly on stylistic comparisons. 51 According to these factors they were artificially connected together and they are called The Lydian Treasure, or sometimes also the Croesus, or East Greek Treasure. The Treasure consists of more than 360 artefacts. 52 In the Treasure are represented gold and silver vessels, jewellery, a pair of marble sphinxes and some wall-paintings. The date of its origin was established by authorities as the 6 th century BC 53 and as provenance places were established the burial-mounds in the Manisa and Uşak regions of Turkey. 54 In the next chapters of the thesis I try to find more evidence for confirmation or negation of these statements. In my opinion it is especially unconvincing to artificially collect all objects into one collection (in this case to the Treasure). There is not enough evidence for it. As it is outlined above, the objects were assigned mainly according to the looters descriptions and stylistic affinities, thus it should be considered more seriously if it is enough in this case. As an example, I would like to mention Lawrenceʼs work. He noted that fragments of wall paintings from the Metropolitan museum fix to the original walls of one tumulus from 49 Mertens J. R., 1987, p Mertens J. R., 1987, p Lawrence K. M., Carla T. M., 1995, p Lawrence K. M., Carla T. M., 1995, p Özgen İ., Öztürk J., p Özgen İ., Öztürk J., p

19 Usak region. It is of course the large success in assignation of the objects, but on the other side is it possible because of one conformity assign more than one concrete artefact? It should be considered that the objects came to the museum in different time horizons and from the different suppliers. Because of this statement it is important to consider every piece of assumed jewellery separately Burials and settlements Together there are more than 500 tumuli in Lydia. 55 They belonged to the local aristocracy and were most likely built near their lands as well as estates. 56 According to Roosevelt's survey in 2001, 75% of non-tumulus sites were located no farther than 5km from the tumulus group. 57 In addition, the geographical landscape played an important role. Areas along the edges of major rivers were especially convenient 58 On the basis of this statement, settlements or non-tumulus sites are attributed. 59 The main problem is that from sites (outside of Sardis) only density of pottery survived (on different levels for different places), fortunately some other small items were found. Outside of Sardis there was also a hamlet-like agglomeration of Lydian structures found. It was found between 1966 and 1968 at Ahlatlı Tepeckık. 60 However this find is unique. It is still valid that most of the data, which could provide some information about the Lydian society originated at Sardis. At Sardis the situation is slightly different. Some basic structures, which provide some information about the Lydian society, are attested. However, as it is mentioned above (chapter 1.3. Sardis) the development of the city is different from the other settlement sites. It is caused firstly due to its urban character and secondly due to differences between the development of Sardis and greater Lydia after the Persian conquest. This means that even through there is some information about the Lydian society at Sardis there is no assurance that it is valuable outside of Sardis. 55 Baughan E., 2010, p Roosevelt Ch. H., 2009, p Roosevelt Ch. H., 2006, pp Roosevelt Ch. H., 2006, p Baughan E., 2010, p Roosevelt Ch. H., 2006, p

20 Tumuli provide the majority of information about Lydians. The grave assemblage illustrate habits, tastes, and wealth of the Lydian elite as well as relation with other cultures (through the visible similarities with them), although very few tumuli have been found undisturbed by ancient or modern plunders. 61 In addition, the other numerous types of burials in various combinations were attested. There were represented burials in pits, sarcophagi, chamber tombs etc Burial types Pits and cists The earliest attested burials in Lydia were placed in pits or cists. They originated from the Early Bronze Age and served for the inhumations. They were typical for Western Anatolia. More burial types were attested up to 600 BC. 62 In the later periods due to their insignificant cost, the pits were used for the poorest inhabitants. Although they should compose the major represented component, not many burials of this type were excavated. This was likely caused by their problematic exposing. 63 The excavated pits dated to the mid-6 th century and around this period they consist of roughly rectangular pits dug into the ground and lined and covered with stone slabs. 64 Diversity of burial pits was attested. An example is a pit lined with roof tiles rather than stone slabs and other building components associated with high-status or public buildings at Sardis. 65 Also noteworthy are the grave assemblages of the pits. They indicate the possibility of rich finds in pits, similar to the case of the burials of high-status inhabitants. In the following 61 Baughan E., 2010, p Baughan E., 2010, p Roosevelt Ch. H., 2009, p Roosevelt Ch. H., 2009, p Roosevelt Ch. H., 2009, p

21 section there are more detailed descriptions of a gold melon bead and onyx pendant on gold wire (Fig. 30) found in the schist-lined cist grave in the Great Necropolis of Sardis Sarcophagi Sarcophagi had a multiple possibility for their placement. They were dug directly in the ground, or they were placed inside of the slab-lined pits, or in the chamber tombs, or in tumuli. They are associated with richer inhabitants than pit burials due to the requisite higher expenditures on their construction. There were sarcophagi found made of terracotta or stone variants differing not only in materials but also in shapes. In addition the existence of wooden examples was also attested, although their appearance (due to lack of preservation of the whole example) is not definite. 67 Terracotta examples had rectangular form whilst the stone variants were similar to the bathtub. Terracotta sarcophagi were seldom found intact. This is caused by their low-fired, easily destructible material. The stone sarcophagi, almost always made by limestone, were attested from at least as early as the fifth century. 68 The sarcophagi were also found in combination with other burials. Sometimes they were covered with earthen mounds as tumuli, sometimes they were found as the secondary burials above the tumuli themselves etc Chamber tombs The rock-cut chamber tombs as well as the tombs built of masonry blocks were attested in Lydia. A combination of these two methods was also used. The main attribute is at least one chamber. In addition they usually have a doorway and short entrance corridor called dromos. In the Great Necropolis, the South Necropolis and the Southeast Necropolis, all 66 Cahill N., Şentürk Ş., 2010, p Baughan E., 2010, p Baughan E., 2010, p Roosevelt Ch. H., 2009, p

22 situated at Sardis, more than 1,150 rock-cut chamber tombs were discovered. They were in use mainly from the late 7 th or early 6 th centuries through to the Late Lydian period. 70 However due to common reuse in subsequent periods some of them are later in date. Only one or two rock-cut chamber tombs from this amount were found intact. The earliest examples seem to be constructed for a single interment. Thus the habit of their re-using has to be of later periods. The freestanding variety of chamber tomb, because of its rarity, was probably built only for wealthy people of high status Tumuli A tradition of tumuli started in Lydia in the second-quarter of the 6 th century or even earlier. 72 The custom was probably assumed from the neighbouring Phrygians, although it possibly originated in central Asia and south Russia. The kurgan burials in south Russia were attested in a slightly modified form already in the 2 nd millennium BC. In the later period they were spread out to the Balkans and Anatolia selectively. 73 The Phrygian tumuli were simple rectangular pits lined timber logs and flat-roofed. The burial was always put in from the top, and the grave had no practical or formal doorway. 74 The Phrygian tumuli were used for burials of kings and high-status leaders. The best example of this is the burial of king Midas. In contradistinction to the Phrygian wooden components the Lydian chambers were built of stone. They also had added dromos with doors, although they were not accessible from outside to the tumuli due to the blocking of them after deposit of the burial and grave assemblages. Inside there was placed a stone couch called kline on which was diseased placed. The alternatives were stone-lined cists or sarcophagi laid in pits Roosevelt Ch. H., 2009, p Roosevelt Ch. H., 2009, p Roosevelt Ch. H., 2009, p Özgen İ., Öztürk J., 1996, p Özgen İ., Öztürk J., 1996, p Baughan E., 2010, p

23 In some cases chambers were covered by a charcoal layer and then by pebbles. Charcoal served to absorb moisture and to prevent seepage. This is attested to at Hatra, İkiztepe, Aktepe and Alyattes tomb at Bintepe. 76 According to Roosevelt, 95% of discovered tumuli were constructed in the Middle and Late Lydian periods. The majority of them should be then constructed according to his research between the mid-sixth and mid-fifth centuries. 77 Tumuli as well as other types of burials were accompanied by grave markers including phallic markers (with uncertain function, six have been found on tumuli in Lydia), 78 symbolic door stelae (with supposed purpose as symbols of passage to the underworld, household etc.), 79 figural stelae (depicting banquets, seated females, standing figures, mounted riders and hunts, animal friezes, battle), freestanding statues of lions and liongriffins and others. 80 The main problem of tumuli is their easy identification in the landscape. This allowed easy identification by looters, who then plundered the vast majority of them. The average diameter of tumuli is around 46 m. and average height is around 5 m, although they can reach up to 361 m in diameter and 70 m. in height Tumuli in the Uşak-Güre region and Menisa province At least three tombs in the Uşak-Güre region (Aktepe, Toptepe and İkiztepe) and one tomb from Menisa (Harta) province are considered as places of origin for the Lydian Treasure. Unfortunately as in the case of other objects/sites found in Lydia they are not unified in structure and grave assemblages. Due to this the research focuses mainly on tumuli Toptepe and İkiztepe, which are allegedly the places, where the jewellery of the Treasure 76 Özgen İ., Öztürk J., 1996, p. 41; Baughan E., 2010, p Roosevelt Ch. H., 2009, pp Roosevelt Ch. H., 2009, p Roosevelt Ch. H., 2009, p More in: Roosevelt Ch. H., 2009, pp Roosevelt Ch. H., 2006, p

24 were buried. They are located in the Uşak-Güre region a few kilometres southern of the Hermos River and approximately 100 km eastern of Sardis. İkiztepe The İkiztepe tumulus (Plate 1) was constructed on a natural hill with the entrance on the southwest side. In 1966 tumulus was illegally plundered together with chambers. Official excavations started in same year and they were lead firstly by Tezcan and later by Akbıyıkoğlu. The İkiztepe tumulus consists of two symmetrical burial chambers built side by side and divided one from another by a central wall. Both include a porch or antechamber, and dromos. The burial on the west side was named Chamber 1 and the burial on the east side Chamber 2. Both chambers included doors in the form of undecorated stone slabs, pitched roofs, charcoal above the chambers as well as timber and then small stones. The chamber 1 contained an irregular monolithic kline with sarcophagus-like lid and the chamber 2 contained two marble klinai. 82 In addition, the looters allegedly took a total of 125 objects from chamber 2. Chamber 1 was entered by other group of looters and it was reported as empty. Objects attributed to İkiztepe (on the basis of descriptions provided by looters) contain vessels, utensils, jewellery and bone and ivory items originally decorating the furniture. The generally suggested date for İkiztepe tumulus as well as for Toptepe tumulus is two or three decades on either side of 500 BC. 83 Toptepe Similar to İkiztepe, Toptepe also contains of roofed chamber and dromos. However in contrast to İkiztepe there was no attested layer of charcoal above the chamber. In the process of plundering Toptepe in 1965 the looters allegedly found the chamber tomb intact. According to their description the grave assemblage consisted of jewellery and tableware placed directly on the kline (more in chapter Toptepe) as well as some other vases placed on the floor Özgen İ., Öztürk J., 1996, pp Özgen İ., Öztürk J., 1996, p Özgen İ., Öztürk J., 1996, p

25 Basmacı Basmacı (Plate 2) is a single tumulus from Uşak region which was found with an intact tomb chamber. The looters tried to entry tumuli in 1968 and 1969, but they did not find the chamber. It was located in the process of proper excavations in 1989 together with dromos and andesite walls blocks. The chamber is rectangular without any signs of roof construction. There was a sarcophagus, partly inside of paved flooring containing wellpreserved bones placed. The grave assemblage consists predominantly of tableware and textiles. It was supposed that Basmacı was less wealthy burial earlier in date, determined especially on the comparisons of other Lydian sites. 85 It has been noted that there were not found any jewellery. However, between inventories two silver pins and one bronze pin are mentioned without any further information The grave assemblages In summary, the burial offerings of Lydian tumuli include often plates especially philai, oinochai, bowls, jugs, ladles, alabastra, etc. They are usually made from precious metals but also stone and bronze pieces are attested. Besides this wall paintings and stone furniture are assigned to Harta and Aktepe, jewellery to İkiztepe and Toptepe, goldsmith tools, jewellery box, and mirror disc to İkiztepe. In the process of excavations there were found traces of textiles in Basmacı, bone and ivory items in İkiztepe. These are only selected examples of grave assemblages from Uşak- Güre and Manisa regions. In the grave assemblages there are no traces of weapons often accompanying various burial types. In literature known to me there is no noted explanation of this. 2. Jewellery and gold In brief I would like to write generally about jewellery and gold, especially about their function, purposes, and about different impress which they can involve in different periods 85 Özgen İ., Öztürk J., 1996, p Özgen İ., Öztürk J., 1996, p

26 in different cultures. These considerations I regard as key in the understanding of jewellery in a special context such as the Lydian jewellery example. What is the purpose of the jewellery? How important is the material related to their function? How important is the material in eyes of the jewelleryʼs owner and how is it important for the ordinary person, who just observes the jewellery of somebody else? What were people able to do to obtain gold? In my opinion these questions are very important when we think about jewellery made of precious metals. The other question is if we are able to answer them according to our understanding of them, according to archaeological excavations, or with help of ancient written sources. A further important point is, how our view to this is problematic subjective and if we are able to correctly analyse the results from sources which I noted. Boardman noted that if jewelry is for show it must be visible 87. This simple sentence confirms how careful we need to be in the case of ancient material. In our condition it is obvious that the jewellery is intended for decoration of the body, to be seen. It looks nice; it decorates us. It shows our social status. However in modern society, the last point is arguable. The precious materials are still considerably valued, on the other hand jewellery made from other non-precious materials is also very popular. The differences between them are not always visible on the first view. Usually the supreme, social classes or powerful individuals with important social position still use them. But it is important to keep in mind that everybody who has enough money to buy them can use them. They are accompanied by suitable clothes, shoes, and other accessories. Jewellery can be also used in modern society as an investment, valued property or the special type of non-financial savings. In classification of the objects it is also important to note the material from which each item was made. There is a need to see jewellery as a form and material, gold/silver or other precious metal or stone, as one complexity. In our case the material used is often gold and silver, sometimes accompanied by a precious stone, notably chalcedony especially carnelian, agate, and onyx. 87 Boardman J., 1996, p

27 The discovery of gold goes back probably in to the 6 th millennium BC. It was possibly found in the pure form in rivers. This alluvial gold doesn t need any treatment so it is easy for usage. On the other hand it is considerably soft. It is also reason why it was used sporadically at least until 3 rd century. The pure soft form of the metal was not useful for making instruments and other things important for surviving in these times. 88 The basic reasons why gold was requested are its rarity and physical properties. Although Boardman thought that it would not have been a matter of a great importance in areas where is its sufficiency or in areas where their existence was of no importance. 89 Some scholars also consider its shiny yellow colour, which is a reminder of the sun. This mention is documented by Pliny (Natural History 33, 19). 90 It could also assign some magic features to this metal. 91 However this possibility must be treated especially carefully in dependence on specific region. The luxury of gold, which is mentioned for example by Hoving and Gómez-Homero 92, I would like to leave aside in my thesis in this form. In my opinion it is modern term which doesn t have to fix its ancient equivalence. The properties of why gold was valuable are especially the incorruptibility, facility to mix with other materials, usually silver and copper and its ductility, which according to von Bothmer was not known or appreciated in antiquity 93. On the other hand they have to know at least some basics of its malleability. At first there is proof that Lydians hammered pieces of gold into a foils and secondly we have note from Pliny about gold as a object, which can be easily worked even into the thinnest sheets, by twisting into wire, by melting and casting, and in time it was found that it could be fashioned into tiny granules. 94 The former will be discussed later. The above mentioned properties especially distinguish gold from silver, which corrodes and causes infection more often. 95 In the other places the main role of gold could be 88 Hoving T., Gómez-Moreno C., , p Boardman J., 1991, p Boardman J., 1991, p More about magical and medical functions in: Boardman J., 1996, p Hoving T., Gómez-Moreno C., , p von Bothmer D. A., 1984, p Boardman J., 1991, p Andrew O. Jr., 1966, p

28 represented by other objects. In China jare and zinc were popular. Elsewhere tin, amber or jet. 96 Boardman also constitutes a value scale, which raised the price of gold. It depended on weight of material, time needed for workmanship and the originality of final object. 97 In my opinion it needs to be taken with some distance. It is more the scale assigned for modern scholars than for ancients. At first, we don t know, if they had the similar taste of object valuation and then we know that they were not able to distinguish more than one alloy of metal (more in chapter 3.2. Gold refining), so gold could be diluent by copper and silver and they would not find it. In this case the final weight would be higher and the stone less precious. In this point the colour of metal was very important and it also often helped with assessment of gold structure. 98 In our society the value of precious metals and stones also increases with its appropriate workmanship, sometimes even several times. It is also considered when the object was made. Centuries or thousands of years raises the real price 99 of the artefact incomparably. The idea of workmanship itself is also noteworthy, especially the working of precious materials to the form of jewellery. Even without our realization today it is very practical, at least theoretically. The owner wears his belongings with him. So he can easily manipulate them and change them for other products. Some questions are coming to my mind with this topic. Did the owner know about this multiple usage? Or did it come gradually? Or is it just my idea connected with today surroundings? The use of the jewellery itself also differentiates in antiquity. While the Greeks did not injure themselves because of jewellery, and maximally their ears are pierced, in Anatolia and Cyprus the ear piercing was going through the earlobe. 100 In the other ancient areas, for example Persia it was even more widespread. We can observe this habit even in the 96 Boardman J., 1991, p Boardman J., 1991, pp The structure of gold was also found by touchstone. 99 The price valid in modern society in stable conditions. 100 Boardman J., 1996, p

29 present, for example in Etiopia the women of Mursi tribe wears plates in their lower lips. This adornment increases their value, which has to be paid by their future husbands. 101 It is also interesting to note the diversity of the jewellery according to gender. While in our society, at least in middle European, in the other areas some different systems can be kept, the special kinds of adornments are connected with specific gender, in antiquity, the roles of jewellery were not so strict. It is visible in the Ionia. Men from this place could wear hair ornaments, earrings, and finger rings at any period. 102 In Lydian context there is evidence, that the Lydian men wore earrings. This custom is attested on the fragment of baked clay relief from Sardis (Fig. 1), dated to 550 BC and today displayed in the Manisa Archaeological Museum. 103 The custom to bury jewellery with the dead originates then in northern areas. 104 The point is that treasures of life were in some places buried even when the precious stones were very rare in these communities. 105 There exist more possibilities of explaining of this habit. It could be an honour for the rulers and others important members of some societies, or it could be also the sacrifice of the luxury, which could cause the destruction of society in the future. 106 During the whole history there is no other material as gold. It caused a lot of wars, slaughter, suffering, stealing, and other disasters that it s burial after some hesitation fully reasonable. It is important to bear in mind, that gold, although mentioned in the Persian Vesta as the noble and the most perfect metal is danger in prioritising of its owner in society. A result of this prioritising was an increasing of differences inside of the society and creating of social levels. 107 Because of these reasons some nations had rules about the properties. In the Scythian community only the kings could have gold and in the Aztec culture it had to be deposited in temples, which were usually placed in terrain not easily accessed and so not everybody could enter them. 108 Strabo also describes the burying of 101 Condra J., 2013, p Boardman J., 1996, p Dedeoğlu H., 2003, p Boardman J., 1996, p Boardman J., 1996, p Bouzek J., 1990, p Bouzek J., 1990, p Bouzek J., 1990, p